Episodes
The Ottoman Empire's Last Grain Ship: Famine, Blockade, and the 1916 Harput Crisis
In 1916, as the Ottoman Empire staggered through World War I, a bureaucratic dispute over a single grain ship became a symbol of systemic collapse. This episode follows the SS Gulcemal, the German-built liner that once carried the empire's elite, and its desperate final voyage to the famine-stricken port of Harput. We trace how the Allied blockade, the Ottoman Public Debt Administration's stranglehold on customs, and the Committee of Union and Progress's wartime requisitions turned a routine…
The Ottoman Empire's Last Sultan: A Kingdom in Ruin
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna explore the final years of the Ottoman Empire through the lens of its last sovereign, Mehmed VI. They trace his reluctant accession in 1918, the empire's occupation by Allied forces, and the Sultan's desperate attempts to preserve his throne amidst the rise of Turkish nationalism. The conversation covers the Sevres Treaty, the Ankara government's challenge, and the ultimate abolition of the sultanate in 1922, leading to Mehmed VI's exile and…
The 1914 Ottoman Boycott That Backfired
In 1914, as the Ottoman Empire teetered on the edge of the Great War, a grassroots boycott of foreign goods swept the streets of Istanbul and beyond. Spurred by the Young Turks and fueled by resentment over the Capitulations, the campaign targeted Austrian and Greek merchants, only to spiral into a wave of violence against Ottoman Greeks that shocked the empire's own officials. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the boycott's outbreak, its economic impact, and the way it exposed the…
The Ottoman Empire's Last Sultan: Mehmed VI
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the final years of the Ottoman Empire through the reign of its last sultan, Mehmed VI. They discuss his accession in 1918, his struggles during the Allied occupation of Constantinople, the Sevres Treaty, and his collaboration with the Allies. The conversation also covers the nationalist movement led by Mustafa Kemal, the abolition of the sultanate in 1922, and Mehmed VI's flight into exile. Along the way, they touch on the caliphate's transfer to the…
The Ottoman Economy: How Debt and Capitulations Paved the Way to Collapse
In this 200th episode, Lucas and Luna explore the financial underpinnings of Ottoman decline. They trace the empire's slide into foreign debt, starting with the 1854 Crimean War loans and the establishment of the Ottoman Public Debt Administration in 1881. The conversation covers the system of capitulations that gave European powers extraterritorial rights, the infamous Tobacco Régie, and the economic nationalism of the Young Turks. They discuss how the empire's reliance on French and British…
The Ottoman Public Debt Administration: Financial Colonization
In 1881, the Ottoman Empire was bankrupt. To pay its debts, it handed control of its finances to a council of European bondholders—the Ottoman Public Debt Administration (Düyûn-ı Umûmiye). This episode explores how this agency became a shadow government, taxing peasants, controlling monopolies, and shaping the empire's fate. We trace its origins from the 1854 Crimean War loans to its role in the 1875-76 default, then follow its expansion into salt, tobacco, and silk, and its impact on everyday…
The Ottoman Navy's Secret Weapon: Submarines in WWI
Before the Gallipoli landings, a tiny German submarine slipped through the Dardanelles and sank two British battleships. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the forgotten naval war that shaped the Ottoman Empire's final years. From the initial British submarine campaign that failed to knock the Ottomans out, to the German U-boats that turned the tide, and the desperate Ottoman efforts to build their own submarine force — this is the story of how underwater warfare nearly changed the course…
The 1909 Countercoup: Abdul Hamid's Last Stand
In April 1909, Constantinople erupted as soldiers and religious students rose against the Young Turks, nearly toppling the revolution that had restored parliament a year earlier. This episode unpacks the 31 Mart Vakası — the countercoup that forced Sultan Abdülhamid II from his throne for good, the mysterious death of journalist Hasan Fehmi, the 'Mohammedan Union' society behind the unrest, and the Hareket Ordusu's march from Salonika to crush the rebellion. We follow the tense power struggle…
The Fire of 1870: How Pera Rose from the Ashes
In 1870, a fire swept through Pera, the Ottoman Empire's most cosmopolitan district, home to embassies, theaters, and the iconic Pera Palace Hotel. This episode explores how the blaze reshaped Istanbul's urban fabric, accelerated modernization, and exposed the empire's fragile infrastructure. We follow the fire's path, the heroic but futile efforts to stop it, and the aftermath that saw stone replace wood and European-style apartments rise along the Grand Rue de Pera. We also meet the key…
The Ottoman Navy and the Shock of Sinop
In 1853, a Russian fleet annihilated the Ottoman navy at Sinop in a single day. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore how the Ottoman Empire lost its naval edge, from the age of Barbarossa and the Battle of Preveza to the wooden walls of the 19th century. They discuss the corruption in the arsenal, the failed reforms of Mahmud II, the rise of steam-powered ironclads, and the strategic blunders that led to the Sinop disaster. The conversation touches on the Tanzimat era's military reforms, the…
The 1876 Ottoman Constitution: Last Chance at Reform
In 1876, the Ottoman Empire adopted a constitution and elected parliament — a desperate bid to stave off collapse. This episode traces the brief, fragile life of the Kanun-ı Esasi, from the plotting of the Young Ottomans to the reforms of Midhat Pasha, and the coup that put Abdülhamid II on the throne. We explore how the constitution was suspended within two years, how it was revived in 1908, and why it ultimately failed to save the empire. Along the way, we meet the key figures — Namık Kemal…
The Ottoman Bank Raid That Changed Everything
In 1896, a small band of Armenian revolutionaries stormed the Ottoman Bank in Constantinople, setting off a chain of events that would reshape the empire's final decades. This episode unpacks the daring raid, its unlikely leader Papken Siuni, and the brutal reprisals that followed. We trace how the Dashnak Party's desperate gamble—born from years of Hamidian oppression—backfired spectacularly, inflaming sectarian tensions and drawing European powers deeper into Ottoman affairs. Along the way…
The 1908 Annexation of Bosnia That Shook the Ottomans
In 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina outright, a move that sent shockwaves through the crumbling Ottoman Empire and the entire European balance of power. This episode unpacks the diplomatic crisis triggered by the annexation, the Young Turk revolution that provided the backdrop, and the bitter Ottoman response — from boycotts of Austrian goods to the legalistic protests of the Committee of Union and Progress. Along the way, we explore the role of the railroad in Austria's…
The 1911 Italo-Ottoman War and the Loss of Libya
In 1911, Italy launched a surprise invasion of Ottoman Libya—a province the empire had held for over three centuries. What began as a colonial land grab turned into a brutal guerrilla war that exposed the Ottoman army's weakness and set the stage for the Balkan Wars. In this episode, Lucas and Luna unpack the causes of the Italo-Ottoman War, from Italy's late scramble for Africa to the diplomatic isolation of the Porte. They follow the Italian landing at Tripoli, the fierce Arab-Ottoman…
The Battle of Sarıkamış: Ottoman Disaster in the Caucasus
In this episode, Lucas and Luna examine the 1914-1915 Battle of Sarıkamış, a catastrophic Ottoman offensive against Russia in the Caucasus Mountains. They discuss Enver Pasha's ambitious plan, the brutal winter conditions, and the devastating losses—over 60,000 soldiers dead, many from frostbite. The conversation explores how this defeat shattered Ottoman military confidence, fueled internal tensions, and accelerated the empire's collapse. Listeners will learn about the Third Army's march, the…
The 1896 Ottoman Bank Raid: A Turning Point in Decline
In August 1896, Armenian revolutionaries from the Dashnak party occupied the Imperial Ottoman Bank in Constantinople, demanding European intervention and reforms. The raid triggered massive reprisals known as the Hamidian massacres, exposing the empire's fragility and deepening Great Power involvement. This episode examines the dramatic 14-hour siege, the negotiations with European ambassadors, and the aftermath that cemented Abdulhamid II's reputation as a brutal autocrat. We explore how the…
The Berlin-Baghdad Railway That Tied the Ottoman Empire to Germany
In the decades before World War I, the Ottoman Empire sought to modernize and hold its crumbling domains together through massive infrastructure projects. None was more ambitious—or more fateful—than the Berlin-Baghdad Railway, a 1,600-mile line that would connect Berlin to the Persian Gulf. Financed by Deutsche Bank and built by German engineers, the railway was meant to project German power into the Middle East while propping up the Ottoman state. But it also alarmed Britain and Russia…
Russo-Turkish War 1877-78: The Ottoman Collapse in Europe
The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 was the final nail in the coffin for Ottoman control in the Balkans. This episode follows the key battles like the Siege of Plevna, where Osman Pasha held out for five months, and the Russian advance to the gates of Constantinople. We explore the Treaty of San Stefano, which created a large Bulgarian state, and the Congress of Berlin, where the Great Powers redrew Balkan borders at Ottoman expense. The war exposed the empire's military weakness, sparked waves of…
Two Ships That Dragged the Ottoman Empire Into WWI
In August 1914, the Ottoman Empire was officially neutral, but inside the Sublime Porte, a secret alliance with Germany was already inked. This episode traces the extraordinary pursuit of the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and the light cruiser SMS Breslau across the Mediterranean, their escape into Ottoman waters, and the fictitious sale that made them Turkish ships. We follow Enver Pasha's gamble, the Black Sea raid on Odessa and Sevastopol in October 1914, and the subsequent Russian…
The 1913 Ottoman Coup That Sealed the Empire's Fate
In January 1913, as the Ottoman Empire reeled from the loss of nearly all its European territory in the First Balkan War, a small group of Young Turks stormed the Sublime Porte in Istanbul. Led by Enver Bey and Talat Bey, they shot dead the war minister Nazım Pasha and forced Grand Vizier Kâmil Pasha to resign at gunpoint. This Bâb-ı Âli Coup consolidated the Committee of Union and Progress (İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti) into a dictatorship that would drag the empire into World War I within a…
How the 1908 Young Turk Revolution Accelerated Ottoman Collapse
In July 1908, a revolution in the Ottoman Empire's Balkan provinces forced Sultan Abdülhamid II to restore the 1876 constitution. Led by the Committee of Union and Progress (İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti), the Young Turk Revolution promised a new era of freedom but instead accelerated the empire's disintegration. This episode explores the spark in Macedonia, key figures like Enver Bey and Niyazi Bey, the sultan's reluctant capitulation, and the immediate aftermath—including Austria-Hungary's…
The Tanzimat Reforms That Failed to Save the Ottoman Empire
In the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire launched an ambitious reform program known as the Tanzimat, aiming to centralize, modernize, and prevent collapse. This episode examines why those reforms ultimately failed, from the flawed 1858 Land Code that enriched elites and dispossessed peasants, to the half-hearted provincial councils that empowered local notables rather than the state, to the rise of the Young Ottomans and the CUP, who blamed the Tanzimat for creating a hybrid system that…
The Auspicious Incident: Why the Janissaries Had to Go
In 1826, Sultan Mahmud II made a bold move that would reshape the Ottoman Empire: the abolition of the Janissary corps. This episode dives into the centuries-old Ottoman infantry that had become a reactionary political force, blocking all reform. We trace the Janissaries' rise from elite slave soldiers to kingmakers, their brutal suppression of the 1807-1808 rebellions, and Mahmud's patient preparation for their destruction. The Vaka-i Hayriye (Auspicious Incident) saw thousands of Janissaries…
The Balkan Wars That Broke the Ottoman Empire
In 1912, the Ottoman Empire faced its most devastating defeat in centuries. The Balkan League—Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro—united and struck while the Empire was distracted by war with Italy. Within weeks, Ottoman forces collapsed, losing nearly all their European territories except a small foothold near Constantinople. This episode explores the First and Second Balkan Wars, the disastrous leadership of Nazım Pasha, the fall of Edirne after centuries of Ottoman rule, and the…
The British Takeover of Egypt 1882: Ottoman Sovereignty Lost
How did the British occupation of Egypt in 1882 become a pivotal moment in the Ottoman Empire's slow decline? This episode explores the Urabi Revolt, the British bombardment of Alexandria, and the Battle of Tel el-Kebir. We trace how Egypt—nominally an Ottoman province but already semi-independent under Khedive Tewfik—fell under British control, with long-term consequences for Ottoman prestige, finances, and the Suez Canal. Lucas and Luna discuss the role of the Düyûn-ı Umûmiye, the strategic…
How the Millet System Backfired and Unleashed Nationalism
In this episode of Why the Ottoman Empire Slowly Collapsed, Lucas and Luna explore the Ottoman millet system—an ingenious method of governing diverse religious communities—and how it ultimately backfired. They focus on the Greek War of Independence (1821–1830), the first major nationalist revolt that shattered the empire's multi-ethnic fabric. Along the way, they discuss the role of the Phanariote Greeks, the 1821 Easter Sunday executions, the intervention of the Great Powers (Britain, France…
The Sick Man of Europe: Why the Ottoman Empire Couldn't Modernize
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the deep structural reasons behind the Ottoman Empire's slow-motion collapse. They focus on the Tanzimat reforms of the mid-19th century, the rise of nationalist movements, and the empire's inability to industrialize. Key figures include Sultan Mahmud II, Mustafa Reşid Paşa, and the Young Ottomans. The discussion covers the 1839 Edict of Gülhane, the 1856 Islahat Fermanı, and the impact of the 1876 Kanun-ı Esasi. Lucas explains how the empire's…
How the Capitulations System Undermined Ottoman Sovereignty
While the Ottoman Empire's military defeats often grab attention, a quieter but equally devastating force was eroding its sovereignty from within: the Capitulations. These legal privileges granted to European merchants—starting with France in 1536 and later extended to other powers—created a parallel legal and economic system inside the empire. Foreign nationals paid lower tariffs, were exempt from Ottoman courts, and operated under their own consular jurisdiction. Over centuries, this network…
The Ottoman Empire's Economic Collapse: How the Debt Spiral Sealed Its Fate
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the internal economic unraveling of the Ottoman Empire in the late 19th century. They focus on the 1875 debt default and the creation of the Düyûn-ı Umûmiye (Ottoman Public Debt Administration), which gave foreign powers control over Ottoman revenues. The conversation examines the 1881 Muharrem Decree, the role of Galata bankers, the Reji monopoly on tobacco, and how these fiscal pressures fueled nationalist movements and weakened the empire. Also…
The Ottoman Empire's 1915 Armenian Deportation and the Road to Genocide
In this episode of Why the Ottoman Empire Slowly Collapsed, Lucas and Luna explore the trajectory that led from the 1909 Adana massacres to the 1915 Armenian deportation and genocide. They discuss the role of the Committee of Union and Progress, the impact of World War I, and the key figures like Talat Pasha and Enver Pasha. The conversation covers the Tehcir Law, the deportation routes, the resistance at Van, and the contested historiography. They also touch on the legacy of the events and…
The Ottoman Empire's 1909 Armenian Massacres: A Prelude to Genocide
In April 1909, as the Ottoman Empire reeled from the counter-revolution known as the 31 March Incident, a wave of massacres swept through the province of Adana, killing an estimated 20,000 Armenian Christians. This episode examines the Adana massacres through the lens of the Hamidian period's ethnic tensions, the Young Turk revolution's unfulfilled promises, and the role of local officials like Cemal Pasha. We explore how the massacres foreshadowed the 1915 Armenian Genocide, the legal…
The Ottoman Empire's 1917 Balfour Declaration Shock
In November 1917, the British government issued the Balfour Declaration, promising a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine. At the time, the Ottoman Empire still controlled the region. This episode explores how the declaration unfolded amid World War I, the secret diplomacy behind it—including the Sykes-Picot Agreement and the Hussein-McMahon correspondence—and the immediate reactions from Ottoman authorities, Arab leaders, and the local population. We focus on the role of Chaim…
The Ottoman Empire's 1916-1917 Sinai Campaign and the Fight for the Suez Canal
In 1916 and 1917, the Ottoman Empire launched two ambitious campaigns to seize the Suez Canal from British-controlled Egypt. This episode follows the Ottoman advance across the Sinai Peninsula, led by German General Kress von Kressenstein and Cemal Pasha, and the British defense under Archibald Murray. We examine the logistical nightmare of moving armies through the desert, the role of German technology like aircraft and railroad construction, and the decisive battles at Romani and Magdhaba.…
The Ottoman Empire's 1915 Gallipoli Campaign: A Turning Point
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the Gallipoli Campaign of 1915, a pivotal moment in the Ottoman Empire's final years. They discuss how the Allied attempt to force the Dardanelles and capture Constantinople backfired spectacularly, thanks to German-led Ottoman defenses under Liman von Sanders and Mustafa Kemal. The conversation covers the naval assault on March 18, the landings at Anzac Cove and Cape Helles, the role of the German battlecruiser Goeben, and the evacuation. They also touch…
The 1876 Ottoman Constitution: Promise and Suspension
In 1876, the Ottoman Empire adopted its first written constitution, the Kanun-ı Esasi, a landmark that promised a parliamentary system and civil rights. But within two years, Sultan Abdülhamid II suspended it, beginning a 30-year autocracy. This episode explores the reformist statesman Mithat Paşa, who drafted the constitution; the political crisis of 1875-76 that forced Abdülhamid's hand; the opening of the first Meclis-i Mebusan; and the constitutional experiment's quick collapse. We examine…
The Ottoman Empire's 1916 Arab Revolt and Its Lasting Legacy
In this episode of Why the Ottoman Empire Slowly Collapsed, Lucas and Luna explore the 1916 Arab Revolt, a pivotal uprising that hastened the empire's disintegration. They discuss the roles of key figures like Sharif Hussein bin Ali, T.E. Lawrence, and Faisal I, and examine the strategic alliances between the Hashemites and the British, including the McMahon-Hussein Correspondence. The conversation delves into the capture of Aqaba in 1917, the guerrilla tactics that tied down Ottoman forces…
The Ottoman Empire's 1909 Adana Massacres and the Cost of Reaction
In April 1909, as the Young Turk revolution stumbled through a counter-revolution in Istanbul, a wave of violence erupted in the Ottoman province of Adana. Over several days, armed mobs—primarily local Muslims—attacked Armenian Christian neighborhoods, killing thousands. This episode examines the Adana massacres as a case study in how the Ottoman Empire's internal tensions, exacerbated by the 1908 revolution and the loss of the Hamidiye cavalry's structure, exploded into communal bloodshed. We…
The Ottoman Empire's 1517 Annexation of Egypt and the Shift to Caliphate
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the 1517 Ottoman conquest of Mamluk Egypt under Sultan Selim I, a pivotal turning point that transformed the empire from a Balkan-Anatolian power into a global Islamic caliphate. They discuss the Battle of Marj Dabiq and the fall of Cairo, the controversial transfer of the Caliphate to the Ottomans, and the lasting impact of Ottoman rule on Egypt, including the appointment of governors (valis) and the integration of the Mamluk elite. The episode also…
How the 1876 Ottoman Constitution Was Suspended
In December 1876, the Ottoman Empire proclaimed its first constitution, the Kanun-ı Esasi, promising an elected parliament and civil liberties. Within months, Sultan Abdülhamid II prorogued the assembly, suspended the constitution, and began a 30-year autocracy. This episode traces the brief life of the Ottoman constitutional experiment: the pressures that produced it, the figures like Mithat Paşa who championed it, the 1877 Russo-Turkish War that gave Abdülhamid his excuse, and the legacy of…
The Ottoman Empire's 1914 Black Sea Raid That Sealed Its Fate
In October 1914, the Ottoman Empire was still officially neutral in World War I, but tensions were high. This episode dives into the fateful decision that dragged the empire into the war: the Black Sea Raid. Under orders from Enver Pasha, the Ottoman fleet—led by the German battlecruiser Yavuz Sultan Selim (formerly SMS Goeben)—attacked Russian ports on October 29, 1914. We explore the secret alliance with Germany, the role of Admiral Wilhelm Souchon, the shelling of Odessa and Novorossiysk…
The Ottoman Empire's 1683 Siege of Vienna That Turned the Tide
In 1683, the Ottoman Empire laid siege to Vienna for the second time, a campaign that would mark the high-water mark of Ottoman expansion into Europe and set the stage for a long, grinding decline. This episode follows the siege itself: the massive army under Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha, the desperate defense led by Count Ernst Rüdiger von Starhemberg and the relief force commanded by Polish King John III Sobieski. We explore the tactical decisions that doomed the siege — Kara Mustafa's…
The Ottoman Empire's 1914 Drift to World War
In early 1914, the Ottoman Empire was broke, battered from the Balkan Wars, and politically fractured. Then two German warships — the Goeben and the Breslau — fled into the Dardanelles, and a secret alliance with Berlin was signed. This episode traces the frantic diplomacy, the deception, and the fateful decisions that dragged the empire into the Great War. We explore Enver Pasha's gamble, the British seizure of Ottoman dreadnoughts, the clever legal fiction that kept the ships under German…
The Ottoman Empire's 1875 Debt Default and Foreign Control
In 1875, the Ottoman Empire defaulted on its foreign debt, triggering a financial crisis that led to the establishment of the Düyûn-ı Umûmiye, the Ottoman Public Debt Administration. This episode explores how European powers took control of Ottoman revenue streams, the impact of the capitulations, and the role of the Galata bankers. We discuss the Muharrem Kararnamesi, the Reji tobacco monopoly, and how the debt burden crippled the empire's ability to modernize. Featuring key figures like…
The Ottoman Janissaries: Why the Elite Corps Turned on the Sultan
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna explore the rise and violent fall of the Janissaries, the Ottoman Empire's once-elite military corps. From their origins as devşirme conscripts—Christian boys taken from Balkan villages, converted to Islam, and trained as the sultan's loyal soldiers—to their transformation into a powerful political faction that dictated policy, launched coups, and resisted reform. We dive into the 1826 Auspicious Incident, when Sultan Mahmud II orchestrated the…
The Ottoman Empire's 1908-1909 Counter-Revolution and the 31 March Incident
In April 1909, just a year after the Young Turk Revolution restored the Ottoman constitution, a conservative uprising in Istanbul nearly toppled the new order. Soldiers from the First Army Corps, backed by religious students and reactionary clerics, marched on Parliament, demanding the restoration of Sharia law and the removal of the Committee of Union and Progress. The revolt, known as the 31 March Incident, briefly succeeded: the Grand Vizier was assassinated, and the government collapsed.…
The Ottoman Empire's 1860 Damascus Massacre and Its Aftermath
In July 1860, the ancient city of Damascus erupted in sectarian violence that left thousands dead. This episode digs into the events of the 1860 Damascus massacre—how a local conflict in Mount Lebanon spiraled into a citywide catastrophe, the Ottoman government's response, and the international outcry that followed. We trace the role of the French intervention, the Ottoman reformer Fuad Pasha's controversial show trials, and the lasting scars on the empire's social fabric. Plus, we explore how…
The Ottoman Empire's Railway That Fueled Collapse
The Hejaz Railway was a grand project meant to unite the Ottoman Empire and project Sultan Abdülhamid II's power. But construction costs, German influence, and Bedouin sabotage turned it into a liability. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore how the railway exposed the empire's financial weakness, fueled Arab resentment, and ultimately aided the Allied campaign in World War I. From the ceremonial first shovel in Damascus to the sabotage operations of T.E. Lawrence and the Arab Revolt, they…
How the 1908 Oil Discovery at Masjed Soleyman Transformed the Empire
In 1908, as the Ottoman Empire staggered through revolution and foreign debt, a British prospecting team struck oil in southwestern Persia—just across the border from Ottoman Basra. That discovery, at a place called Masjed Soleyman, didn't just reshape Persia; it sent shockwaves into the Ottoman economy, diplomacy, and military planning. This episode traces the tangled story: William Knox D'Arcy's desperate gamble, the Anglo-Persian Oil Company's birth, the Ottoman fears of British encirclement…
How the Ottoman Empire Lost Libya: The 1911 Italo-Turkish War
In 1911, Italy invaded Ottoman Libya, triggering the first war in history to feature aerial bombing and the first time a military used airplanes for reconnaissance and bombing. This episode dives into the Italo-Turkish War of 1911-12, covering the Italian landing at Tripoli, the fierce Ottoman resistance led by young officers like Enver Bey and Mustafa Kemal, the role of local Senussi tribes, the use of aircraft and dirigibles, the forgotten naval battles in the Red Sea, and the secret…
The Ottoman Decline: How Abdülhamid II's Hamidiye Cavalry Backfired
In this episode of Why the Ottoman Empire Slowly Collapsed, Lucas and Luna explore a lesser-known factor in the empire's decline: the Hamidiye Cavalry. Created by Sultan Abdülhamid II in 1891, these Kurdish tribal regiments were meant to secure the eastern border and counter Russian influence. Instead, they became a tool of oppression against Armenian and other Christian communities, deepening ethnic tensions and destabilizing the region. The hosts trace the Hamidiye's origins in the aftermath…
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