Episodes
The Horse That Built an Empire: Vijayanagara's Cavalry
In this episode of Fexingo History, hosts Lucas and Luna explore the pivotal role of the horse trade in the Vijayanagara Empire. From the arid Deccan plains to the bustling ports of Bhatkal and Goa, they trace how a constant influx of Arabian and Persian horses powered the empire's military might. Lucas shares details about the Portuguese entry into the trade, the rise of the Mappila merchants, and the staggering prices paid for elite warhorses. He also reveals how Krishnadevaraya's savvy…
The Nayaka System: How Vijayanagara Ruled an Empire
This episode digs into the Nayaka system, the administrative backbone of the Vijayanagara Empire. Lucas and Luna explore how Krishnadevaraya and his predecessors turned conquered warlords into loyal governors, the military obligations that kept the empire's armies fed, and how the system's flexibility let Vijayanagara hold together a patchwork of languages and loyalties. They look at a specific Nayaka family, the Madurai Nayakas, who started as viceroys and ended up as semi-independent kings…
Hampi's Jaina Legacy: The Jain Monuments of Vijayanagara
In this episode of Fexingo History, we explore the often-overlooked Jaina heritage of Vijayanagara's capital, Hampi. While the city is famed for its Hindu temples, Jainism flourished under the Sangama and Tuluva dynasties. Lucas and Luna discuss the Parsvanatha Basti and other Jaina basadis, the role of Jaina merchants in the empire's economy, and the patronage of Jaina gurus by emperors like Harihara II and Deva Raya II. They also touch on the legendary rivalry between a Jaina minister and the…
The Fall of Vijayanagara: Inside the Battle of Talikota
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna explore the dramatic final days of the Vijayanagara Empire, focusing on the Battle of Talikota in 1565. They discuss the political intrigue that led to the battle, the strategic missteps of Aliya Rama Raya, the role of the Deccan Sultanates, and the aftermath that saw the glorious capital of Hampi reduced to ruins. Along the way, they touch on the eyewitness accounts of Portuguese traders, the tragic fate of Rama Raya's head, and the lasting…
Hampi's Forgotten Gateways: The City Gates of Vijayanagara
In this episode, Lucas and Luna step through the monumental gateways of Vijayanagara's capital, Hampi. From the towering Gopura of the Virupaksha Temple to the fortified city walls that once enclosed a thriving metropolis, we explore how these structures functioned as more than mere entrances—they were stages for royal processions, sites of commerce, and symbols of imperial power. We trace the evolution of Vijayanagara's urban planning, from the early Sangama dynasty to the Tuluva and Aravidu…
The Forgotten Capital of Vijayanagara: Chandragiri
After the catastrophic Battle of Talikota in 1565, the Vijayanagara Empire didn't simply vanish overnight. The capital shifted south to Chandragiri, a walled city in present-day Andhra Pradesh, where the last generations of the Aravidu dynasty tried to hold the empire together. This episode follows the journey of the empire's heart from Hampi to Chandragiri, exploring how the city became a refuge for poets, a seat of a crumbling power, and eventually the place where the British East India…
Hampi's Urban Palimpsest: City Beneath the Ruins
When most people picture Vijayanagara, they see the iconic ruins of Hampi — the stone chariot, the Vittala temple, the boulder-strewn landscape. But beneath the tourist trail lies something far more fascinating: a sprawling, sophisticated urban center that was one of the largest cities in the world in the sixteenth century. This episode peels back the rubble to uncover the working city of Vijayanagara — its residential quarters, its crowded bazaars, its water systems, its workshops, and the…
Vijayanagara's Court Intellectuals and the Art of Memory
In episode 200 of our Vijayanagara series, Lucas and Luna step away from the battlefield to explore the empire's intellectual life. How did a kingdom that rose from the ashes of war sustain a vibrant culture of poetry, philosophy, and history? We meet the court poets, the Sanskrit scholars, and the chroniclers whose works — like the Madhura Vijayam and the Amuktamalyada — preserved the empire's memory long after its fall. We uncover the role of royal patronage in fostering this renaissance, the…
The Battle of Raichur: Krishnadevaraya's Vengeance
In 1520, the Vijayanagara Empire faced its greatest military test since the founding of the capital at Hampi. The young Sultan of Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah, had seized the Raichur Doab, a fertile strip between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers, and Krishnadevaraya, the most ambitious ruler of the Tuluva dynasty, decided to take it back. This episode follows the campaign that culminated in the Battle of Raichur, a confrontation that pitted Vijayanagara's massive infantry and cavalry against…
The Battle of Bannihatti: Vijayanagara's Last Stand
In 1565, the armies of Vijayanagara and the Deccan Sultanates clashed at a dusty crossroads near the village of Bannihatti, just miles from the capital of Hampi. The battle that followed—often overshadowed by the sack of Hampi that came after—was one of the largest and most decisive in Indian history. This episode digs into the military maneuvers, the fatal arrogance of Vijayanagara's commander Aliya Rama Raya, and the political calculus of the four allied sultanates. What really happened on…
The Horse Trade That Built Vijayanagara
Long before the cannons of Talikota, Vijayanagara's wealth and power rested on the backs of tens of thousands of horses imported from Arabia and Persia. In this episode, Lucas and Luna trace the empire's legendary horse trade: the perilous sea routes, the Portuguese and Mappila merchants who controlled it, the royal stables that housed up to 20,000 mounts, and the staggering prices paid for the finest animals. They explore how the Deccan's lack of native cavalry horses created an absolute…
Hampi's Bazaar Streets: The Markets of Vijayanagara
When the Persian ambassador Abdur Razzak visited Vijayanagara in the 1440s, he claimed the city's main bazaar was so wide that meat-sellers, jewellers, and horse traders each had their own lane — and that rubies, pearls, and emeralds were sold so openly they seemed as common as onions. In this episode, Lucas and Luna wander the ruined bazaar streets of Hampi to reconstruct the daily commerce that made Vijayanagara one of the wealthiest cities of its age. They trace the famous Virupaksha Bazaar…
Hampi's Forgotten Water Tanks: Ancient Engineering
Before the stones of Hampi were looted and its aqueducts ran dry, Vijayanagara engineered a water system that made a city of half a million possible on a semi-arid plateau. In this episode, Lucas and Luna trace the empire's hydraulic genius: the Kamalapuram tank, the royal water gardens of the Zenana enclosure, the intricate sluice gates that Domingo Paes described with awe, and the monsoon-fed channels that fed the Tungabhadra and its riverfront temples. We look at how Vijayanagara's engineers…
Tungabhadra River: The Lifeblood of Vijayanagara
Before the city of victory rose, there was the river that made it possible. In this episode, Lucas and Luna follow the Tungabhadra from its origins in the Western Ghats to the fertile plains of Hampi, exploring how Vijayanagara's engineers transformed a seasonal river into a hydraulic backbone. They examine the anicuts, canals, and sluice gates that watered the empire's fields and filled its royal baths, and consider the river's role in defense, ritual, and daily life. Along the way, they weigh…
The Temple Builders of Vijayanagara: Inside the Sthapati's Craft
In this episode of The Vijayanagara Empire: The Forgotten Hindu Superpower, Lucas and Luna explore the world of the sthapati, the master architect and builder who shaped the monumental temples of Hampi. They trace the training of these builders, the guilds they belonged to, and the techniques they used to carve granite and schist into towering gopurams and intricate pillared halls. The conversation moves from the construction of the Virupaksha temple and the Vittala temple complex to the role…
Vijayanagara's Water Engineering: The Hampi Aqueducts
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna dive into the remarkable water engineering of Vijayanagara, the forgotten Hindu superpower of South India. While earlier episodes covered the city's planning and architecture, this time they focus on the intricate system of aqueducts, channels, and tanks that sustained Hampi's population and agriculture. From the Kamalapuram tank to the royal baths at the Zenana enclosure, they explore how engineers redirected the Tungabhadra's waters and…
The Temple Economy of Vijayanagara: How Faith Financed an Empire
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the temple economy that underpinned the Vijayanagara Empire. Temples weren't just places of worship — they were banks, landlords, and employers. From the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi to the thousand-pillared halls of the Vittala Temple, we trace how land grants, endowments, and ritual donations funded everything from irrigation tanks to military campaigns. We meet the temple administrators, the devadasis, and the artisans who kept the system running, and we…
The Stone Chariot of Hampi: Symbol of a Fallen Empire
In episode 190 of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna examine the iconic stone chariot at Hampi's Vittala Temple — a monument that has survived five centuries of conquest, decay, and restoration. They trace its origins to the late Vijayanagara period, explain its architectural lineage from earlier temple chariots, and separate legend from archaeological fact. The conversation covers the Vijayanagara style's synthesis of Chola and Hoysala elements, the symbolism of the chariot as a divine vehicle…
Vijayanagara's Queens: Gangadevi and the Women Who Shaped an Empire
In this episode, we explore the often overlooked role of women in the Vijayanagara Empire. We focus on Gangadevi, a queen and poet who chronicled her husband's military campaigns in the Madhura Vijayam. We also discuss the patronage of royal women in temple construction, their administrative roles, and the legend of the female warrior Hannama. Drawing on inscriptions, literary texts, and traveler accounts, we reveal how queens shaped politics, culture, and religion in the Deccan. The episode…
The Lost Navy of Vijayanagara
When we think of the Vijayanagara Empire, we picture the stone chariot of Hampi, the war elephants, the bustling bazaars. But this Deccan superpower was also a formidable maritime force, controlling a string of ports from the Konkan to Kerala. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore Vijayanagara's fleet—how Krishnadevaraya and his predecessors built warships, challenged the Portuguese, and defended the coast against pirates. They dive into the role of the Mappila sailors, the shipyards of…
The Aravidu Dynasty: Vijayanagara's Last Stand
After the catastrophic Battle of Talikota in 1565, the Vijayanagara Empire didn't die overnight. This episode follows the Aravidu dynasty's desperate attempt to hold the fragments together—shifting capitals from Penukonda to Chandragiri to Vellore, fighting off the Deccan Sultanates from Bijapur and Golconda, and managing rebellious nayakas. We focus on the reign of Venkata II (1586–1614), who nearly revived the empire, and his successors like Sriranga II, who faced betrayal and murder. We…
Vijayanagara's Portuguese Alliance: Horses and Cannons
In this episode of the Vijayanagara Empire series, we explore the strategic alliance between Emperor Krishnadevaraya and the Portuguese. As Vijayanagara faced the Deccan Sultanates, the empire needed a steady supply of warhorses and advanced firearms. The Portuguese, newly established in Goa, provided both. We dive into the negotiations, the exchange of ambassadors, and the impact of Portuguese horses and cannons on Vijayanagara's military campaigns, including the decisive Battle of Raichur.…
Vijayanagara's Golden Currency: Coins That Ruled the Deccan
In this episode of the Vijayanagara Empire series, Lucas and Luna explore the empire's sophisticated coinage system, which underpinned its vast economy and far-reaching trade networks. From the famous Varaha gold coins stamped with the boar symbol of Krishnadevaraya, to the silver and copper fanams that facilitated daily commerce, they trace how Vijayanagara’s mints produced some of the finest numismatic art in South Asia. The discussion draws on traveler accounts like those of Domingo Paes and…
The Nayakas of Vijayanagara: How Provincial Governors Shaped an Empire
This episode explores the Amara-Nayaka system, the backbone of Vijayanagara's vast empire. Lucas and Luna dive into how provincial governors, known as Nayakas, were appointed by kings like Krishnadevaraya to collect revenue, maintain armies, and govern territories. They discuss the origins of the system, its role in expanding imperial control, and how it inadvertently led to fragmentation after the Battle of Talikota. Specific figures like Tirumala Nayaka of Madurai and the Tanjore Nayakas are…
Vijayanagara's Mahanavami: The Festival That Shook an Empire
This episode explores the grand nine-night Mahanavami festival (Dasara) under the Vijayanagara Empire, especially during Krishnadevaraya's reign in the early 16th century. We walk through the elaborate rituals, the display of tribute from Nayakas, the sacrifice of buffaloes, wrestling matches, and the spectacular procession of the royal family. Drawing on eyewitness accounts from Portuguese travelers Domingo Paes and Fernão Nuniz, we reveal how the festival was not just a religious event but a…
The Saluva Interregnum: How a General Seized Vijayanagara
Between the Sangama and Tuluva dynasties, a general named Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya seized the Vijayanagara throne in 1485. This episode explores his rise from military commander to emperor, his campaigns against the Bahmani Sultanate and the Gajapatis of Odisha, and the fragile succession that ended with his son Immadi Narasimha's murder at the hands of Tuluva Nrsimha. We also examine how this short-lived dynasty shaped the empire's recovery from the Sangama decline and laid the groundwork…
The Battle of Talikota: Vijayanagara's Final Day
In 1565, the mighty Vijayanagara Empire, which for centuries had dominated South India, met its nemesis on a dusty battlefield near the village of Talikota. This episode unpacks the four-year campaign that culminated in the catastrophic clash — the rivalries among the Deccan sultanates, the fateful arrogance of Aliya Rama Raya, the sudden betrayal of two Muslim generals, and the brutal sack of Hampi that left the capital a ghost city. We trace the slipknot of alliances that united the Adil…
The Sangama Brothers Founders of Vijayanagara
Episode 180 goes back to the very beginning of the Vijayanagara Empire: the story of two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, who emerged from the ruins of the Kakatiya kingdom to build a Hindu superpower. With guidance from the sage Vidyaranya, they established the Sangama dynasty in 1336, choosing the strategic site of Anegundi on the Tungabhadra. This episode traces their journey from Delhi Sultanate officers to empire builders, the dramatic reconquest of Kampili, and the early alliances that set…
Vijayanagara's Eight Poets: The Ashtadiggajas of Krishnadevaraya
In the golden age of the Vijayanagara Empire, Emperor Krishnadevaraya's court was home to the Ashtadiggajas—eight legendary poets who elevated Telugu literature to new heights. This episode dives into their lives, works, and political roles. We explore Allasani Peddana, the 'father of Telugu poetry' and his epic 'Manu Charitramu'; the witty Tenali Ramakrishna, whose clever tales still circulate in folklore; and others like Dhurjati, Pingali Surana, and Nandi Thimmana. Learn how these poets were…
The Battle of Raichur: Krishnadevaraya's Greatest Victory
In 1520, the Vijayanagara Empire under Krishnadevaraya fought the Battle of Raichur against the Adil Shahi Sultanate. This episode dives into the military strategy, the use of Portuguese mercenaries and firearms, the role of war elephants, and the aftermath that secured the Raichur Doab. We discuss the key commanders like Saluva Timmarasa, the betrayal by the Portuguese captain, and the significance of this victory for the empire's golden age. Learn about the actual numbers, the battlefield…
Vijayanagara's Dancing Girls: The Devadasi System at Hampi
This episode explores the devadasi system in the Vijayanagara Empire, focusing on the lives of the temple dancers who served deities like Virupaksha at Hampi. Lucas and Luna discuss the social status, training, and artistry of these women, drawing on accounts from Portuguese travelers Domingo Paes and Fernão Nuniz, and references in Telugu literature like the Amuktamalyada. They delve into the paradox of the devadasis' high ritual status versus their limited personal freedoms, and how the…
Vijayanagara's Iron Legacy: The Wootz Steel of Hampi
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the iron and steel industry of the Vijayanagara Empire, focusing on the production of high-carbon wootz steel that was exported across the Indian Ocean. They discuss the iron mines of the Deccan, the smelting techniques used in the furnaces near Hampi, and how the empire's control of iron resources contributed to its military and economic power. The conversation touches on the trade networks that carried wootz steel to the Middle East and Europe, where it…
Vijayanagara's Copper Plate Charters: Land Grants and Power
Long before stone inscriptions, Vijayanagara kings etched their authority onto copper plates. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the empire's copper plate charters — the legal documents that transferred land, granted tax exemptions, and shaped Deccan society for centuries. They examine how these plates recorded royal grants to Brahmins, temples, and military officers, and how they reveal the empire's administrative sophistication. Learn about the Sangama dynasty's earliest copper plates…
Vijayanagara's Royal Architects: Building the City of Victory
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the brilliant architects and engineers who designed Hampi, the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire. They discuss figures like Gunda, the royal sthapati who oversaw the construction of the Virupaksha temple, and the innovative use of granite and volcanic boulders in the city's fortified walls and towering gopurams. The conversation covers the integration of sacred geometry with defensive design, the role of the king as a divine patron, and the engineering…
Vijayanagara's Urban Planning: The Lost City of Hampi
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the sophisticated urban planning of Vijayanagara, focusing on the capital city of Hampi. They discuss the city's grid-like layout, advanced water management systems (including the Queen's Bath and stepped tanks), bustling marketplaces like the Chandragiri market, and the integration of sacred and secular spaces. The episode draws on accounts of Portuguese travelers Domingo Paes and Fernão Nuniz, as well as recent archaeological findings. A standout detail…
The Horse Trade That Built Vijayanagara
The Vijayanagara Empire needed thousands of warhorses to defend the Deccan, but India had no native stock. Every horse came by sea from Arabia and Persia — a fragile supply chain that the empire's enemies could choke. In this episode, Lucas and Luna follow the journey of a single Arabian stallion from the docks of Hormuz to the stables of Hampi. They examine the horse trade's scale: Portuguese records suggest 10,000 to 20,000 animals landed annually. They meet the Kudirai Chettis, the Tamil…
Vijayanagara's War Elephants: The Armored Tanks of the Deccan
Long before tanks rumbled across battlefields, the Vijayanagara Empire fielded the most formidable weapon of the medieval world: the war elephant. This episode takes you into the stables of Hampi, where thousands of armored pachyderms were trained, equipped with iron-tipped tusks, and deployed in formations that could shatter enemy lines. We explore how the empire sourced its elephants from the forests of Mysore and the distant Malay Peninsula, how Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes described…
Vijayanagara's Water Management: The Hampi Aqueducts and Stepwells
In this episode, Lucas and Luna dive into the sophisticated water management system of Vijayanagara, focusing on the engineering marvels that sustained its capital city Hampi. They explore how the Tungabhadra River was harnessed through an intricate network of aqueducts, canals, and stepwells, including the Queen's Bath and the King's Balance, to supply water for irrigation, ritual bathing, and daily use. The conversation highlights the role of the Tuluva dynasty, particularly Krishnadevaraya…
Vijayanagara's Persian Inscriptions: Hindu Kings Who Wrote in Persian
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore a surprising facet of the Vijayanagara Empire: its use of Persian in royal inscriptions, even under Hindu rulers. They discuss the 15th-century reign of Deva Raya II, who employed Muslim archers and adopted Persian titles, and the later Tuluva kings who continued the practice. The conversation covers the famous 'Turka Lad Khan' inscription, the role of Persian as a diplomatic lingua franca, and the debate over whether this was pragmatism or cultural…
Vijayanagara's Persian Inscriptions: Hindu Kings Who Wrote in Persian
When you walk through the ruins of Hampi today, most inscriptions are in Kannada, Telugu, or Sanskrit. But scattered among them, etched into stone, are verses in Persian — the language of the Deccan Sultanates. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore how Vijayanagara's rulers, especially Krishnadevaraya and Deva Raya II, used Persian for diplomatic messages, royal edicts, and even a mosque inscription. They uncover the story of the Turka Lad Khan — a Muslim commander in a Hindu army — and the…
Vijayanagara's Royal Food: The King Krishnadevaraya Diet
What did Emperor Krishnadevaraya actually eat? This episode steps into the kitchens of Vijayanagara, drawing on accounts from Portuguese travelers Domingo Paes and Fernão Nuniz, as well as local inscriptions. Discover the daily menu of the king—from mounds of rice and spiced curries to exotic imports like Persian melons. Learn about the hierarchical food system, where Amara-Nayaka lords ate off silver plates while commoners had banana leaves. We explore the role of ghee, betel leaf after meals…
Vijayanagara's Water Wonder: The Hampi Aqueducts
How did a city of half a million people in the arid Deccan get enough water? This episode of Fexingo History delves into the ingenious hydraulic engineering of Vijayanagara, focusing on the massive aqueduct system, canals, and stepped tanks that sustained Hampi. We explore the role of the Tungabhadra River, the construction of the now-dry canals, the 'Queen's Bath' and 'King's Balance' as water features, and the political control over water rights under the Tuluva dynasty. We also examine the…
Vijayanagara's Divine Play: The Krishnadevaraya–Vyasatirtha Partnership
Episode 165 unpacks the extraordinary partnership between Emperor Krishnadevaraya and the Dvaita saint-scholar Vyasatirtha. How did a theologian become the empire's chief political strategist? We trace the intellectual currents of the Madhva tradition, the role of the guru in Tuluva court politics, and the surprising ways Vyasatirtha's theological writings justified imperial expansion. Along the way, we touch on the guruparampara lineage, the concept of 'divine play' in statecraft, and how a…
Vijayanagara's Yogis: The Holy Men Who Shaped an Empire
This episode explores the profound influence of yogis and ascetics on the Vijayanagara Empire, focusing on the figures of Vyasatirtha and his guru, the wandering monk Madhvacharya. We discuss how the Tuluva dynasty, particularly Krishnadevaraya, relied on spiritual advisors for legitimacy, military campaigns, and administrative reforms. The conversation delves into the role of the matha (monastery) network in consolidating power, the controversial practice of 'sallekhana' (ritual fasting unto…
Vijayanagara's Secret Police: The Intelligence Network That Saved an Empire
Long before modern espionage, the Vijayanagara Empire ran one of the most sophisticated intelligence networks in medieval India. In this episode, Lucas and Luna uncover the shadowy world of the empire's spies, informants, and secret messengers. Drawing on the accounts of Portuguese travelers Domingo Paes and Fernão Nuniz, as well as inscriptions and court chronicles, they explore how rulers like Krishnadevaraya and Deva Raya II maintained a vast web of agents who monitored nobles, generals, and…
Vijayanagara's Royal Goldsmiths: The Elephant of Gold at Mahanavami
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the dazzling world of Vijayanagara's royal goldsmiths, focusing on the extraordinary life-sized elephant statue made of pure gold that was paraded during the Mahanavami festival. They discuss the techniques of lost-wax casting and repoussé work, the wealth that funded such opulence, and how Portuguese chronicler Domingo Paes documented the statue in 1520. The conversation also touches on the role of the court jeweler, the sourcing of gold from the Kolar…
Vijayanagara's Animal Diplomacy: Giraffes, Cheetahs, and Kings
In this episode of The Vijayanagara Empire: The Forgotten Hindu Superpower, Lucas and Luna explore a surprising thread in the empire's diplomatic history: the trade and gifting of exotic animals. From the Bengal sultan sending giraffes to Krishnadevaraya to the cheetahs trained for hunting in the Deccan, they uncover how animals were used as living ambassadors. They discuss the Persian term 'zirafah' entering Kannada, the zebras that confused European visitors, and the lost menageries of Hampi.…
Vijayanagara's Akshaya Patra: The Free Food Revolution of Hampi
In episode 160 of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna explore one of Vijayanagara's most remarkable yet overlooked institutions: the Akshaya Patra system of free, universal food distribution at Hampi. Drawing on the accounts of Portuguese traveller Domingo Paes and Persian ambassador Abdur Razzak, they uncover how the empire fed thousands daily—from weary travellers to temple workers, soldiers to ascetics—regardless of caste, creed, or status. Lucas explains the logistics of massive communal…
The Fall of Vijayanagara: Talikota Myths and the Real Aftermath
In 1565, the Vijayanagara Empire suffered a catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Talikota. But what really happened that day, and what followed? This episode separates legend from evidence. Lucas and Luna explore the conflicting accounts of the battle's turning point — including the controversial story of two Muslim brothers in Vijayanagara's service who allegedly switched sides with their cannon. They examine the aftermath: the sack of Vijayanagara's capital, the survival of the empire under…
Vijayanagara's Overseas Colonies: Indian Trade Across the Indian Ocean
Did the Vijayanagara Empire establish colonies overseas? While its mainland capital of Hampi has been extensively studied, this episode explores the empire's maritime reach across the Indian Ocean. Lucas and Luna dive into the little-known settlements in the Maldives, Sri Lanka, and even Southeast Asia, where Vijayanagara merchants and mercenaries left their mark. Drawing on Portuguese records from Domingo Paes and Fernão Nuniz, as well as local chronicles from the Maldives and Sri Lanka, they…
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