
Episodes
The 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition's Philippine Reservation
In 1904, the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis showcased America's new empire. At its heart stood the Philippine Reservation, a living exhibit where over a thousand Filipinos were displayed in replicated villages. This episode follows the journey of the Bontoc Igorots, who performed their daily lives for curious crowds, and the Negritos, often billed as 'pygmies.' We explore how anthropologists like Albert Jenks shaped the displays, the daily conditions for the participants, and the…
The 1903 Santo Domingo Improvement Company Takeover
In 1903, the United States took over the Dominican Republic's customs houses through the Santo Domingo Improvement Company, a move that set the stage for decades of fiscal intervention. This episode traces how a private New York firm entangled itself in Dominican debt, how Theodore Roosevelt used the company's collapse to push the Roosevelt Corollary, and how the 1907 customs receivership turned the island into a de facto protectorate. We follow the Dominican perspective too—from President…
The 1909 Payne-Aldrich Tariff and America's Imperial Trade
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore how the Payne-Aldrich Tariff of 1909 reshaped America's imperial economy. They dig into the battle between President William Howard Taft and Speaker Joe Cannon, the role of Sereno Payne and Nelson Aldrich, and how the tariff's surprising provisions for the Philippines and Puerto Rico sparked a constitutional crisis over 'the power to tariff is the power to destroy.' Along the way, they discuss the rise of the Insular Cases, the impact on sugar and…
The Great White Fleet and America's Global Debut
In 1907, President Theodore Roosevelt sent sixteen battleships around the world to show off America's new naval might. This episode follows the Great White Fleet's fourteen-month journey, the mixed reactions it stirred, and what the voyage revealed about the United States as an emerging empire. We look at the fleet's construction, the route through Latin America and Asia, the diplomatic choreography in Japan and Australia, and the quiet anxieties back home about cost and readiness. Along the…
The 1905 Taft Mission: America's Soft Power in Asia
In 1905, William Howard Taft, then Secretary of War, traveled to East Asia on a mission that would redefine America's imperial reach. Fresh from governing the Philippines, Taft stopped in Japan to smooth over tensions after the Russo-Japanese War, met with Emperor Meiji, and then crossed to China for discussions with the Empress Dowager Cixi. His trip culminated in a secret meeting with Japan's Prime Minister Katsura Tarō, where they struck the Taft–Katsura Agreement — a deal that recognized…
The 1903 Wounded Knee of the Philippines: The Battle of Bud Dajo
In 1906, American troops stormed the crater of Bud Dajo on the island of Jolo in the Philippines, killing hundreds of Moro men, women, and children. The so-called Battle of Bud Dajo, often called the 'Moro Crater Massacre,' marked a brutal turning point in America's occupation of the southern Philippines. This episode tells the story of the Moro people, their struggle against both Spanish and American colonization, and the controversial leadership of General Leonard Wood, who ordered the…
The Road to the Jones Law: How America Nearly Lost the Philippines
In 1916, after nearly two decades of American rule, the Philippines stood at a crossroads. The Jones Law, signed by President Woodrow Wilson, promised eventual independence and reshaped colonial governance. But its path was anything but smooth. This episode traces the rise of Filipino nationalism, the controversial Wood-Forbes Mission, and the bitter debates in Washington over whether the United States could ever truly let go. We explore the role of governors like Francis Burton Harrison, the…
The First Philippine Commission: America's Civilian Empire
Before William Howard Taft became president and chief justice, he governed a colonial outpost on the far side of the world. This episode follows the First Philippine Commission — five men dispatched by President McKinley in 1899 to build a civil government from the ashes of the Spanish-American War. We trace the commission's journey from the streets of Manila to the rice terraces of Luzon, where Taft's 'policy of attraction' replaced the sword with courts, schools, and public works. We meet the…
The 1902 Cooper Act and America's First Colonial Land Law
In 1902, the United States Congress passed the Cooper Act, formally organizing the government of the Philippine Islands and setting land policy for the new colony. This episode follows the drafting and effects of the act, from its author Henry Allen Cooper to the debates over private property, the Torrens system, and the future of the Philippine archipelago. We look at the role of William Howard Taft, the Philippine Commission, and the resistance to American land laws. We also examine how the…
The 1904 Plattsburg Plan: America's Civilian Military Empire
In 1904, an obscure army manual written by William H. Carter and Elihu Root quietly transformed how the United States waged war. The Plattsburg Plan, a summer training camp for businessmen and college boys, turned civilian volunteers into officers overnight, creating a reserve officer corps that would lead America's armies through two world wars. This episode follows the improbable path from Root's General Staff reorganization to the 1916 Plattsburg camps that drew Woodrow Wilson's reluctant…
The 1907 Jamestown Exposition: America's Empire on Parade
In 1907, as the United States flexed its new naval power, the Jamestown Exposition celebrated the 300th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown, Virginia — and with it, the rise of America as a global empire. The fair showcased the Great White Fleet, the latest military technology, and exhibitions of the country's new colonial possessions, including the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Hawaii. Lucas and Luna explore the exposition's origins, its dazzling displays of naval might, the controversial…
The 1904 St. Louis World's Fair: America's Imperial Showcase
In 1904, St. Louis hosted the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, a world's fair that doubled as a grand celebration of America's new overseas empire. This episode explores how the fair brought the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and other colonial territories to the American heartland, featuring human exhibits in the Philippine Reservation, the Igorot 'dog-eaters' controversy, and the fair's role in shaping public opinion about empire. We discuss the fair's organizers, including David R. Francis and…
America's 1916 Jones Law and the Rise of Filipino Autonomy
In 1916, the Jones Law promised the Philippines eventual independence and created an elected Senate, reshaping America's colonial empire. This episode traces the law's origins in Woodrow Wilson's Democratic platform, the eloquent advocacy of Manuel Quezon and the Nacionalista Party, and the decisive role of Francis Burton Harrison, who handed real power to Filipino politicians. We explore the limits of the law—Washington still controlled foreign affairs and held a veto—and the surprising speed…
The 1903 US–Cuban Reciprocity Treaty: Sugar, Empire, and Dependence
In 1903, the United States and Cuba signed a Reciprocity Treaty that lowered tariffs on Cuban sugar in exchange for American goods entering the island almost duty-free. This episode looks at how that deal — pushed through by the Roosevelt administration and Cuban president Tomás Estrada Palma — locked Cuba into a role as a sugar colony for the United States. We talk about the Platt Amendment's shadow, the 20 percent tariff preference that seemed like a gift but was actually a leash, and how the…
The 1902 Cooper Act and America's First Colonial Land Law
In 1902, the United States passed the Cooper Act, a law that reorganized the Philippines' land system under American rule. But its real purpose was to dismantle the old Spanish-era estates and create a class of smallholding farmers loyal to Washington. In this episode, Lucas and Luna dig into the Act's practical effects: how it worked on the ground, who really benefited, and why it set the stage for decades of agrarian unrest. They trace the law's roots to the Philippine Organic Act, the…
Balangiga Massacre America's Brutal War in the Philippine Samar
In 1901, Filipino villagers in Balangiga ambushed American troops, killing 48. The US retaliation under General Jacob H. Smith was shockingly brutal—orders to kill all males over ten and turn Samar into a 'howling wilderness.' This episode examines the forgotten atrocity, the ensuing court-martial, and what it reveals about American imperial violence. We dive into the attack on September 28, 1901, the 'Balangiga bells' later returned as war trophies, and the moral costs of empire. A deep…
The 1916 US Occupation of the Dominican Republic
In 1916, the United States invaded and occupied the Dominican Republic, taking control of its customs, military, and government for eight years. This episode explores the roots of the intervention in Roosevelt's Corollary and Dollar Diplomacy, the 1916 Marine landing, the brutal counterinsurgency against the gavilleros, and the lasting impact on Dominican sovereignty. We discuss figures like President Juan Isidro Jimenes, rebel leader Desiderio Arias, and US General John H. Russell. Learn about…
The 1917 Purchase of the Danish West Indies
In 1917, the United States purchased the Danish West Indies (now the US Virgin Islands) for $25 million, acquiring a strategic Caribbean foothold at the height of World War I. This episode explores the decades-long negotiations, the economic decline that pushed Denmark to sell, the local perspectives of the mostly Black population under Danish rule, and the strategic calculations of President Woodrow Wilson and Secretary of State Robert Lansing. We also touch on the earlier failed 1867 treaty…
The Foraker Act: America's Colonial Blueprint for Puerto Rico
In 1900, the US Congress passed the Foraker Act, establishing a civil government for Puerto Rico after the Spanish-American War. This episode unpacks the law's structure—an appointed governor, an executive council, and a limited elected House of Delegates—and the political battles behind it. We explore how Senator Joseph B. Foraker of Ohio shaped the colony's governance, the debate over tariffs and trade, and the early stirrings of Puerto Rican autonomy movements. We also connect the Foraker…
The Insular Cases How the Supreme Court Defined America's Empire
In this episode, Lucas and Luna delve into the Insular Cases, a series of Supreme Court decisions from 1901 that determined the constitutional status of America's new overseas territories after the Spanish-American War. Focusing on the landmark case Downes v. Bidwell, they explore how the Court created the doctrine of 'unincorporated territories,' allowing the U.S. to hold colonies without granting full constitutional rights. The conversation traces the legal reasoning of Justice Edward…
The Capture of Emilio Aguinaldo: How America Ended the Philippine Insurrection
In March 1901, US forces captured Emilio Aguinaldo, the leader of the Philippine revolutionary government, ending the Philippine-American War's conventional phase. This episode follows the daring plan of General Frederick Funston, who used Filipino scouts and a fabricated rescue mission to infiltrate Aguinaldo's camp in Palanan. We discuss the war's brutal counterinsurgency, including the 'water cure' torture and civilian reconcentration, and the legacy of Aguinaldo's oath of allegiance to the…
The 1900 Election and America's Anti-Imperialist Movement
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the domestic opposition to American empire at the turn of the twentieth century. We focus on the Anti-Imperialist League, a coalition of politicians, writers, and industrialists including Mark Twain, Andrew Carnegie, and former president Grover Cleveland, who fought against the annexation of the Philippines and other colonial acquisitions. The 1900 presidential election became a referendum on imperialism, with Democrat William Jennings Bryan campaigning…
The Boxer Rebellion and America's Empire of Influence
In 1900, as the United States was consolidating its colonial grip on the Philippines, another crisis erupted in China: the Boxer Rebellion. Hundreds of foreign missionaries and diplomats were besieged in Beijing, and President McKinley dispatched thousands of American troops—many fresh from the Philippine-American War—as part of the Eight-Nation Alliance. Lucas and Luna explore how the U.S. intervention in the Boxer Rebellion exemplified a new kind of global power: one that projected military…
The 1903 Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty and America's Panama Canal
In 1903, the United States engineered a revolution in Panama to secure the canal zone, signing the controversial Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty with a French diplomat who had no authority from Panama. This episode explores the backstory: America's canal ambition dating to the 1850s, the failed French attempt under Ferdinand de Lesseps, the rejected Hay-Herrán Treaty with Colombia, and President Theodore Roosevelt's decisive intervention. We also cover the treaty's terms, the role of Philippe…
The 1899 Tripartite Convention and America's Unseen Pacific Colony: American Samoa
While the Spanish-American War gave the United States the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam, one Pacific acquisition often slips through the cracks: American Samoa. In this episode, Lucas and Luna dive into the 1899 Tripartite Convention that partitioned the Samoan archipelago between Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States. They explore how the US secured the strategic harbor of Pago Pago, the role of the US Navy as colonial administrator, and the unique relationship with Samoan…
The Overthrow of Hawaii's Queen and US Annexation in 1898
In 1893, a group of American and European businessmen, backed by U.S. Marines, overthrew Queen Liliuokalani of Hawaii. This episode explores the events leading to the coup, the role of U.S. Minister John L. Stevens, the failed 1897 petition against annexation signed by 21,000 Native Hawaiians, and the 1898 joint resolution that made Hawaii a U.S. territory. We discuss the strategic importance of Pearl Harbor, the political maneuvering of Sanford Dole, and the lasting impact on Hawaiian…
The 1916 Jones Law and the Birth of Philippine Autonomy
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the 1916 Jones Law, a pivotal piece of U.S. legislation that promised Philippine independence and reshaped colonial governance. They discuss the law's key provisions, the role of Filipino leaders like Manuel Quezon and Sergio Osmeña, the impact of Governor-General Francis Burton Harrison's Filipinization policy, and the legacy of the law in the context of America's Pacific empire. The conversation also touches on the Insular Cases, the cacique class, and…
The 1916 Jones Law and the Birth of Philippine Autonomy
In 1916, the US Congress passed the Jones Law, a landmark act that promised Philippine independence and reorganized the colonial government. This episode explores the law's provisions, the political maneuvering of Manuel Quezon and the Nacionalista Party, and the limits of American-style democracy in a colonial setting. We discuss the creation of an all-Filipino Senate and House of Representatives, the retention of American veto power, and the unresolved questions about sovereignty and…
The 1902 Cooper Act and America's First Colonial Land Law
In 1902, the United States Congress passed the Cooper Act, formally titled the Philippine Organic Act, establishing the first comprehensive land law for America's new colonial possession. The act aimed to privatize and register land titles in the Philippines, breaking up traditional communal landholding systems and paving the way for American-style property rights. But its implementation had profound consequences: it empowered the Filipino cacique class—wealthy landowners who already controlled…
The 1902 Philippine Organic Act and America's Colonial Government
In 1902, the U.S. Congress passed the Philippine Organic Act, establishing a colonial government for the Philippines. This episode explores the act's provisions, including the creation of a bicameral legislature with an appointed upper house and elected lower house, and the extension of the Bill of Rights — with notable exceptions like trial by jury. We examine the act's impact on Filipino self-rule, the role of the Philippine Commission, and the tensions between American ideals and colonial…
The 1901 Army Reorganization and America's Colonial Military
In 1901, the U.S. Army underwent a massive reorganization driven by the demands of empire. The creation of the Philippine Constabulary, the role of General Adna Chaffee, and the transition from volunteer to regular forces in the Philippines. How the Insular Cases shaped military authority, and the legacy of the Posse Comitatus Act in colonial contexts. Featuring the Philippine Scouts, the constabulary's first director Henry T. Allen, and the Moro Province's military governance under Leonard…
The 1905 US Army Surgeon's Colonial Ethnology in the Philippines
In 1905, US Army Surgeon George M. Kober traveled to the Philippines to conduct anthropometric measurements of indigenous peoples, part of a broader project to categorize and control colonial subjects. This episode explores Kober's work, the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes under Dean Worcester, and the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair's Philippine Reservation, where Igorot people were displayed. We discuss how scientific racism and colonial administration intertwined, and the legacy of these…
The 1898 Treaty of Paris and America's Pacific Empire
In this episode of The Rise of the United States as a Global Empire, Lucas and Luna explore the often-overlooked negotiations and consequences of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, which ended the Spanish-American War and ceded the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico to the United States. They focus on the fierce debate within the U.S. Senate over annexation—a battle between imperialists like Henry Cabot Lodge and anti-imperialists like George Frisbie Hoar and Carl Schurz—and how the treaty barely…
The 1904 St. Louis World's Fair and America's Imperial Showcase
In 1904, St. Louis hosted the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, a World's Fair that doubled as a grand display of American imperial ambition. This episode zooms in on the Philippine Reservation, where over a thousand Filipinos from various ethnolinguistic groups were brought to live in a simulated village for the amusement and education of visitors. We follow the stories of figures like Antonio P. Guevarra, an Igorot schoolteacher who later wrote critically about his experience, and the…
The 1910 Mann Act and America's Imperial Morality
In 1910, the US Congress passed the White-Slave Traffic Act, commonly known as the Mann Act, ostensibly to combat forced prostitution and the trafficking of women across state lines. But this episode reveals how the Mann Act was weaponized as a tool of empire, used to police the bodies and moral behavior of colonized peoples in the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Hawaii. We explore the case of two Filipino women, Maria and Juana, who were detained under the Act in Manila in 1912, and how their…
The 1916 Jones Law and the Filipinization of the Civil Service
In 1916, the Jones Law promised Philippine independence and began the rapid transfer of administrative power from American officials to Filipinos. This episode follows the career of Rafael Palma, a Filipino lawyer and politician who became head of the University of the Philippines and a key figure in the civil service transition. We trace the tensions between the Insular Cases' constitutional doctrine of 'unincorporated territory' and the practical demands of self-government. The episode…
The 1903 Philippine Census and America's Colonial Head Count
Before the 1903 census, nobody really knew how many people lived in the Philippines. The US colonial government needed numbers for taxation, representation, and justifying its rule. Lucas and Luna explore how American statisticians and Filipino census-takers fanned out across seven thousand islands, counting heads by lantern light in remote barrios and recording languages no outsider had ever documented. They talk about the challenges of enumeration in a mostly illiterate, multilingual…
The 1907 Gentlemen's Agreement and America's Pacific Empire
In 1907, the United States and Japan signed an informal agreement that would reshape immigration, diplomacy, and the racial politics of America's Pacific empire. Lucas and Luna explore how the Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907 emerged from tensions in California, where anti-Japanese sentiment led to school segregation and violence. They trace the role of President Theodore Roosevelt, who sought to avoid a diplomatic crisis while maintaining the exclusionary goals of the White House. The episode…
The 1899 Schurman Commission and America's Philippine Policy
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the Schurman Commission of 1899, the first official U.S. fact-finding mission to the Philippines after the Treaty of Paris. They discuss how commission chair Jacob Gould Schurman, a Cornell University president, and his team — including Admiral George Dewey, General Elwell Otis, and Professor Charles Denby — sought to understand the archipelago's complex political landscape. The episode details the commission's key findings, including its recommendation…
The 1905 US Army Surgeon's Colonial Ethnology in the Philippines
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the strange and troubling story of Dr. George M. Kober, a US Army surgeon who conducted anthropometric studies of Igorot people in the Philippines in 1905. Kober measured skulls, photographed bodies, and compiled data that was later used to argue for the 'non-civilized' status of certain Filipinos, reinforcing American colonial policies. The episode unpacks how pseudoscience and imperialism intertwined, how Kober's work was cited in the Insular Cases, and…
The 1902 Cooper Act and America's First Colonial Land Law
In this episode, Lucas and Luna delve into the 1902 Cooper Act, the first colonial land law enacted by the United States for the Philippines. They explore how this legislation, championed by Congressman Henry Cooper, aimed to redefine land ownership in the archipelago by introducing Torrens title registration and restricting large estates. The act is set against the backdrop of the Philippine-American War and the early work of the Taft Commission. The conversation highlights the tensions…
The 1902 Cooper Act and America's First Colonial Land Law
In 1902, the U.S. Congress passed the Philippine Organic Act, also known as the Cooper Act, which established a new government for the Philippines and introduced controversial land policies. This episode explores how the act created a civil government, limited land ownership to 16 hectares for individuals, and effectively barred Chinese and other non-citizens from acquiring land, reflecting America's racialized vision of empire. We discuss the act's sponsors, including Senator Henry Cooper of…
The 1899 Philippine-American War and America's First Asian Colony
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the forgotten origins of America's overseas empire through the lens of the Philippine-American War. They dive into the Battle of Manila Bay, the Treaty of Paris, and the brutal three-year conflict that followed—where 4,000 Americans and over 200,000 Filipinos died. They discuss Emilio Aguinaldo, the Malolos Constitution, and the Balangiga Massacre, as well as the racial ideology behind 'benevolent assimilation' and the Moro Rebellion. The conversation…
The 1917 Jones Act and Puerto Rico's Uncertain Citizenship
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the 1917 Jones-Shafroth Act, which granted U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans. They discuss the political maneuvering of Luis Muñoz Rivera, the Insular Cases' legal framework, and the Supreme Court case Balzac v. Porto Rico that clarified the limits of that citizenship. The episode examines how the act was a compromise that left Puerto Rico's status unresolved, shaping its colonial relationship with the United States for decades. #JonesShafrothAct…
The 1917 Jones Act and Puerto Rico's Unincorporated Status
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the 1917 Jones-Shafroth Act, which granted U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans but maintained the island's status as an 'unincorporated territory.' They discuss the political maneuvering of Luis Muñoz Rivera, the Insular Cases precedent, and the limitations of citizenship without full constitutional rights. The episode also touches on the 1917 Selective Service Act's impact on Puerto Ricans, who were drafted into World War I without voting representation in…
The 1918 Flu Pandemic and America's Global Empire
In 1918, a devastating influenza pandemic swept across the world, claiming tens of millions of lives. But the story of the Spanish Flu is also a story of empire. As the United States emerged as a global power, its military and colonial networks became vectors for the virus. This episode explores how the pandemic traveled along imperial routes—from Army camps in Kansas to the trenches of Europe, from the Philippines to Puerto Rico, and even to Siberia. We focus on the role of U.S. colonial…
The 1914 Jones Act and America's First Filipino Congressman
In this episode, we explore the 1914 Jones Act and its role in shaping Filipino representation in the U.S. Congress. Learn about Manuel Quezon's journey from revolutionary to resident commissioner, the rise of the Nacionalista Party, and the cacique system that dominated Philippine politics. We also discuss the Insular Cases, the Harrison Law, and how Woodrow Wilson's administration navigated colonial governance. Discover how the Jones Act set the stage for future autonomy debates.…
The 1922 Washington Naval Treaty and America's Pacific Empire
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the Washington Naval Conference of 1921–22 and the resulting Five-Power Treaty, which set limits on battleship tonnage among the United States, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy. Lucas explains how the treaty emerged from a post-World War I naval arms race and American fears of Japanese expansion in the Pacific. He discusses the role of Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes, the controversial 10:10:6 ratio that gave Japan a subordinate position, and the…
The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and America's Empire
In 1918, as World War I raged and the United States expanded its global footprint, a deadly influenza pandemic swept across the world. This episode explores how the pandemic intersected with America's imperial ambitions, from military camps in the Philippines to naval bases in Puerto Rico. We discuss the role of colonial medical infrastructure, the movement of troops as vectors of disease, and how the pandemic exposed racial and colonial hierarchies. Key figures include Dr. Victor Heiser, chief…
The 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre and America's Domestic Empire
When white mobs destroyed the prosperous Black neighborhood of Greenwood in Tulsa, Oklahoma in 1921, they didn't just attack a community — they obliterated an economic empire built in defiance of Jim Crow. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore how the patterns of racial subjugation that drove American overseas empire-building found their mirror at home, from the land dispossession of Indigenous nations to the terror that erased Black wealth. They discuss the role of the Oklahoma National…
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