
Episodes
American Imperialism in the Caribbean: Haiti's Occupation
In this episode, we look beyond the sugar plantations of Hawaii and the islands of the Pacific to examine the United States' military occupation of Haiti from 1915 to 1934. We explore how the pretext of protecting American business interests led to a fourteen-year intervention that fundamentally reshaped Haitian society. Lucas and Luna discuss the creation of the Gendarmerie d'Haïti, a US-controlled police force designed to maintain order for foreign investors. They examine the violent…
The Philippines' Forgotten Genocide: Samar and the Yellow Press
In this episode of Fexingo History, we turn our attention to the darkest chapter of the Philippine-American War: the Battle of Samar and the subsequent pacification campaigns. While earlier episodes covered the political maneuvering of the Taft Commission and the economic interests behind Dollar Diplomacy, we now examine the brutal military reality on the ground. Lucas and Luna explore the actions of Major General Jacob Franklin Smith, who ordered his troops to kill everyone over the age of ten…
The Panama Canal's Human Cost and American Power
While the Great White Fleet showcased naval might, the Panama Canal project revealed the brutal mechanics of empire. We explore the US intervention in Colombia’s Panama province in 1903, orchestrated by President Theodore Roosevelt and Secretary of State John Hay. The narrative follows Philippe Bunau-Varilla, the French engineer who sold the canal rights, and the subsequent construction led by George Washington Goethals. This episode examines the racial dynamics of the workforce, the segregated…
Guam's Strategic Anchor in the Pacific Empire
While previous episodes have explored the complex and often violent history of American expansion in the Philippines and Haiti, this episode shifts focus to a smaller but critically important island: Guam. Following the Spanish-American War in 1898, the United States seized Guam from Spain with minimal resistance, yet its strategic value was immense for projecting power across the Pacific. We examine how the US Navy transformed the island into a coaling station and naval base, reshaping its…
Hawaii's Sugar Kingdom and American Expansion
Before the Spanish-American War catapulted the United States into Pacific imperial power, a quiet economic conquest was already underway in the Hawaiian Islands. This episode explores how American missionaries and sugar planters transformed the Kingdom of Hawaii from an independent monarchy into a de facto protectorate of Washington. We examine the pivotal role of Sanford B. Dole and the Committee of Safety, who orchestrated the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani in 1893 with the tacit approval of…
The Philippines and the Open Door: Dollar Diplomacy
While previous episodes have focused on the violence of occupation and the bureaucratic machinery of Manila, this episode shifts to Washington. In 1909, President William Howard Taft deployed Elihu Root as a special envoy not just to review colonial policy, but to secure American economic dominance across Asia. The conversation explores the 'Open Door' policy in China, the strategic logic of using the Philippines as a naval and commercial bridgehead, and the friction between military governors…
America's Dollar Diplomacy in Haiti
This episode examines the United States occupation of Haiti from 1915 to 1934, focusing on the creation of the Gendarmerie d'Haïti and the brutal suppression of the Caco Wars. We explore how American financial control reshaped Haitian governance, displacing local leaders like Jean-Baptiste Chavannes and installing puppet administrations under William Shapleigh. The narrative details the violent conflict at Morne Verrettes and the role of Jacques Roumain in documenting the cultural and political…
The US Occupation of Haiti: Blood and Bananas
In this episode, we explore the United States occupation of Haiti from 1915 to 1934, a period often overshadowed by conflicts in the Philippines. Lucas and Luna trace how the fear of German influence and the protection of American financial interests led to a military intervention that reshaped Haitian society. We examine the role of the US Marine Corps, the creation of the Gendarmerie d'Haïti, and the brutal suppression of peasant uprisings known as the Caco Wars. The conversation delves into…
The 1906 Manila Earthquake and American Relief
On the morning of July 16, 1906, a massive earthquake devastated Manila, leveling churches, government buildings, and homes alike. While the Spanish-American War had ended decades prior, this disaster tested the very foundations of American colonial rule in the Philippines. In this episode, we explore how Governor-General William Howard Taft and his administration responded to the catastrophe, using the crisis to demonstrate the efficacy of 'benevolent assimilation' through rapid relief…
The 1908 Moro Uprising and the Myth of Benevolent Assimilation
In this episode, we look past the grand naval displays of the Great White Fleet to examine the brutal reality of American rule in the southern Philippines. While Washington celebrated its imperial reach, General Leonard Wood was waging a war against the Moro people in Mindanao and Sulu that involved mass executions, forced relocation, and the destruction of entire communities. We explore the concept of 'benevolent assimilation' as it clashed with the fierce independence of the sultanates…
The Philippines' Forgotten Republic: Apolinario Mabini
This episode shifts focus from American imperial machinery to the Filipino resistance that defined it. While previous episodes covered the Philippine Scouts, the Moro Province, and the Jones Law, we explore the intellectual backbone of the First Philippine Republic. We examine the life of Apolinario Mabini, known as the 'Sublime Paralytic,' who served as prime minister despite being paralyzed by polio. Lucas and Luna discuss his legal arguments against US annexation, his exile in Guam, and his…
The Great White Fleet's Pacific Diplomacy
In 1907, President Theodore Roosevelt sent sixteen battleships around the world to demonstrate American naval power and deter Japanese expansion in the Pacific. This episode explores the strategic reasoning behind the voyage, the diplomatic friction it caused with Japan, and the domestic reaction within the United States. We examine how the fleet’s stops in Australia, New Zealand, and Latin America were designed to project strength while avoiding conflict. The narrative focuses on key figures…
Theodore Roosevelt's Rough Riders and the Spanish-American War
We trace the transformation of the United States from a continental power to a global imperial force through the lens of the Spanish-American War. While previous episodes have covered the aftermath in the Philippines and the administrative struggles under Taft, this episode focuses on the catalyst: the war itself. We examine the role of Theodore Roosevelt and the 1st United States Volunteer Cavalry, known as the Rough Riders, at the Battle of San Juan Heights. We also look at the naval victory…
The Philippine-American War's Forgotten Genocide
We often frame the Spanish-American War as a brief, victorious conflict for the United States, but the subsequent war in the Philippines lasted three years and claimed hundreds of thousands of Filipino lives. This episode examines the brutal counter-insurgency tactics employed by American forces, specifically focusing on General Jacob Franklin Smith’s infamous order to kill everyone over ten years old in the province of Samar. We explore the concept of reconcentration camps, similar to those…
The Great White Fleet and American Imperial Power
In 1907, President Theodore Roosevelt sent sixteen battleships on a twenty-two-month circumnavigation of the globe, an event known as the Great White Fleet. This episode explores how this naval demonstration was not merely a show of strength but a calculated diplomatic maneuver designed to signal America’s arrival as a world power. We examine the political motivations behind the voyage, including the need to reassure allies in Asia while subtly warning Japan against further expansion into Korea…
The Philippine-American War's Forgotten Genocide
We often remember the Spanish-American War as a brief, heroic crusade, but the conflict that followed in the Philippines was something else entirely—a brutal, protracted colonial war that killed hundreds of thousands. In this episode, we leave behind the diplomatic maneuvering of Taft and Roosevelt to look at the ground truth of the insurgency. We examine the military strategy of General Jacob Smith, his infamous order to kill everyone over ten years old, and the subsequent court-martial that…
The 1908 Manila Carnival: Empire's Festive Mask
In February 1908, Manila threw itself a grand carnival — a week of parades, pageants, and elaborate floats that seemed to celebrate nothing but joy. But beneath the confetti lay a carefully staged performance of American empire. Lucas and Luna dig into the first Manila Carnival: who organized it, who funded it, and why the colonial government poured money into a week of revelry. They follow the money trail from Governor James F. Smith's office to the city's elite, and uncover the carnival's…
The 1907 Cart War: America's Cattle Empire in the Philippines
In 1907, the American colonial government in the Philippines faced an unexpected rebellion: a cart war. Carabao-drawn carts, the lifeblood of Manila's freight and agriculture, became the target of a strike that crippled the capital and exposed the limits of benevolent assimilation. This episode follows the cart drivers, mostly rural migrants, who banded together under a charismatic leader named Macario Sakay, already a legend of the Philippine Revolution. We trace the colonial response, from…
The 1908 Root Mission: Washington's Last Imperial Audit
In 1908, Secretary of War Elihu Root sailed to the Philippines to see America's colony for himself. His mission — a final audit of the empire Theodore Roosevelt was about to hand to William Howard Taft — took him from Manila's grand boulevards to the Moro Province's volatile south, where he faced a dilemma that still haunts American foreign policy: how do you rule people who never asked to be ruled? Along the way, Root sparred with Governor General James F. Smith over the future of Philippine…
The 1908 Taft-Roosevelt Split and the Fall of an Empire's Architect
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna trace the quiet rupture that ended William Howard Taft's imperial stewardship. We revisit Taft's 1908 Manila years, his handpicked governorship under Roosevelt, and the 1908 Republican Convention that handed him the nomination—only to watch his careful, conciliatory empire-building unravel in the shadow of Roosevelt's Progressivism. From the 'special trust' of the Insular Cases to the 1908 Republican platform's tariff fights, we see how Taft's…
The 1916 Jones Law and the Filipino Promise
In 1916, the United States passed the Jones Law, promising Philippine independence—a phrase with a long and complicated history. This episode traces the road from the Taft era's 'benevolent assimilation' through the push by Manuel Quezon and the Nacionalistas, to the law's actual provisions and the realities on the ground. We look at what 'independence' meant to different parties—Filipino elites, American colonial officials, and the Moro peoples of the south—and how the law set up a…
The 1904 Filipino Census That Built an Empire
In 1903, the United States launched the first comprehensive census of the Philippine Islands—a massive undertaking that would shape American colonial rule for decades. Lucas and Luna explore how the census, overseen by the Philippine Commission and its chief, Sanger, became a tool of imperial control, categorizing millions of Filipinos into neat ethnic boxes: Igorot, Moro, Visayan, Tagalog. They trace the census takers' journey through jungles and mountains, the resistance they met, the…
The 1905 Forbes Report: America's Fiscal Grip on Manila
In 1905, the U.S. Secretary of Commerce and Labor, William Cameron Forbes, submitted a report that would quietly shape the financial architecture of America's newest colony. This episode unpacks how Forbes's recommendations on banking, currency, and taxation tightened Washington's hold on the Philippines, just as the Insular Cases were defining the constitutional limits of empire. We trace Forbes's path from Boston Brahmin to colonial governor, the creation of the Philippine National Bank, the…
The 1908 Philippine Constabulary: America's Colonial Police
In 1901, the United States created the Philippine Constabulary — a paramilitary police force that would become the armed wing of American colonial rule. This episode follows the Constabulary from its founding under Henry T. Allen, through its brutal campaigns against the Pulahanes and the Moro, to its role in enforcing American law on the islands. We look at the men who joined — both American officers and Filipino recruits — and the complexities of policing a colony with its own people. Along…
The 1904 World's Fair and America's Imperial Zoo
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna revisit the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair, where the Louisiana Purchase Exposition showcased the Philippines as a living exhibit. They discuss the Philippine Reservation, where over a thousand Filipinos, including Igorot and Negrito peoples, were displayed in reconstructed villages for the amusement of fairgoers. The hosts explore the motivations behind the exhibit, the racist undertones of American imperialism, and the lived experiences of those…
The 1908 Moro Province: America's Unruly Southern Frontier
In 1908, the United States was still trying to make sense of its newest colonial possession: the Moro Province in the southern Philippines. This episode follows the attempts of American officials to govern the Muslim-majoritarian regions of Mindanao and Sulu, where the colonial state clashed with local leaders, sultanates, and a deeply rooted Islamic culture. We trace the creation of the province under the Philippine Commission, the administration of Governor-General Leonard Wood, and the…
The Philippine Scouts and America's Colonial Army
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the US Army's Philippine Scouts—Filipino soldiers who served under American officers from 1901 to the 1940s. They were the backbone of American colonial control in the islands, fighting in the Philippine–American War, chasing Pulahanes and Moro insurgents, and later facing the Japanese invasion in 1941–42. The conversation covers the Scouts' origins, their distinguished combat record (including the heroic stand on Bataan), the complex motivations of…
The 1907 Jamestown Exposition and America's Naval Empire
In 1907, as the United States flexed its new global muscle, the Jamestown Tercentennial Exposition offered a stage for empire. This episode zooms in on the exposition's naval spectacle: the Great White Fleet's dramatic departure from Hampton Roads, the temporary Philippine Reservation that recreated 'exotic' villages for fairgoers, and the quiet diplomacy of the Jamestown Naval Review. We follow the fleet's journey around the world, the symbolism of Roosevelt's 'big stick,' and the…
The 1904 World's Fair and America's Imperial Zoo
In 1904, St. Louis hosted the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, a World's Fair that showcased America's newly acquired empire to millions of visitors. At the heart of it was the Philippine Reservation, a sprawling exhibit where over a thousand Filipinos were displayed in recreated villages—some wearing traditional dress, others in American clothing, all under the watchful eye of anthropologists like Albert Jenks. This episode zooms in on the Reservation's most controversial attraction: the "Igorot…
The 1906 Atlanta Race Riot and America's Imperial Mirror
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore a troubling parallel: how the same racial ideologies that justified American empire abroad surfaced at home in the 1906 Atlanta Race Riot. Through the lens of Charles W. Chesnutt's essay 'The Disfranchisement of the Negro' and the city's new segregation ordinance, they trace how post-Reconstruction 'race relations' were policed in the South just as Filipino and Cuban populations were managed overseas. The conversation touches on Booker T. Washington's…
The 1905 Mercer Report: America's Secret Plan for the Philippines
In 1905, a little-known report by a US Army officer named Frank B. Mercer laid bare the contradictions of American rule in the Philippines. While the US proclaimed 'benevolent assimilation,' Mercer documented how colonial policies — including the hated cedula tax and forced labor for road construction — were driving resentment and rebellion. His findings were so damning that Governor-General William Howard Taft tried to bury them, yet they subtly shaped later reforms like the Philippine Organic…
William Howard Taft and the Art of American Empire
Before he was President, William Howard Taft was the architect of American colonial rule in the Philippines. This episode traces his journey from Ohio judge to governor of an empire, where he balanced benevolent assimilation with pragmatic governance. We explore how Taft won over Filipino elites, his infamous feud with Theodore Roosevelt, and how his policies set the template for American empire in Asia. From the Taft Commission to the Taft-Katsura Agreement, we see the man who preferred law to…
The 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition's Philippine Reservation
In 1904, the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis showcased America's new empire. At its heart stood the Philippine Reservation, a living exhibit where over a thousand Filipinos were displayed in replicated villages. This episode follows the journey of the Bontoc Igorots, who performed their daily lives for curious crowds, and the Negritos, often billed as 'pygmies.' We explore how anthropologists like Albert Jenks shaped the displays, the daily conditions for the participants, and the…
The 1903 Santo Domingo Improvement Company Takeover
In 1903, the United States took over the Dominican Republic's customs houses through the Santo Domingo Improvement Company, a move that set the stage for decades of fiscal intervention. This episode traces how a private New York firm entangled itself in Dominican debt, how Theodore Roosevelt used the company's collapse to push the Roosevelt Corollary, and how the 1907 customs receivership turned the island into a de facto protectorate. We follow the Dominican perspective too—from President…
The 1909 Payne-Aldrich Tariff and America's Imperial Trade
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore how the Payne-Aldrich Tariff of 1909 reshaped America's imperial economy. They dig into the battle between President William Howard Taft and Speaker Joe Cannon, the role of Sereno Payne and Nelson Aldrich, and how the tariff's surprising provisions for the Philippines and Puerto Rico sparked a constitutional crisis over 'the power to tariff is the power to destroy.' Along the way, they discuss the rise of the Insular Cases, the impact on sugar and…
The Great White Fleet and America's Global Debut
In 1907, President Theodore Roosevelt sent sixteen battleships around the world to show off America's new naval might. This episode follows the Great White Fleet's fourteen-month journey, the mixed reactions it stirred, and what the voyage revealed about the United States as an emerging empire. We look at the fleet's construction, the route through Latin America and Asia, the diplomatic choreography in Japan and Australia, and the quiet anxieties back home about cost and readiness. Along the…
The 1905 Taft Mission: America's Soft Power in Asia
In 1905, William Howard Taft, then Secretary of War, traveled to East Asia on a mission that would redefine America's imperial reach. Fresh from governing the Philippines, Taft stopped in Japan to smooth over tensions after the Russo-Japanese War, met with Emperor Meiji, and then crossed to China for discussions with the Empress Dowager Cixi. His trip culminated in a secret meeting with Japan's Prime Minister Katsura Tarō, where they struck the Taft–Katsura Agreement — a deal that recognized…
The 1903 Wounded Knee of the Philippines: The Battle of Bud Dajo
In 1906, American troops stormed the crater of Bud Dajo on the island of Jolo in the Philippines, killing hundreds of Moro men, women, and children. The so-called Battle of Bud Dajo, often called the 'Moro Crater Massacre,' marked a brutal turning point in America's occupation of the southern Philippines. This episode tells the story of the Moro people, their struggle against both Spanish and American colonization, and the controversial leadership of General Leonard Wood, who ordered the…
The Road to the Jones Law: How America Nearly Lost the Philippines
In 1916, after nearly two decades of American rule, the Philippines stood at a crossroads. The Jones Law, signed by President Woodrow Wilson, promised eventual independence and reshaped colonial governance. But its path was anything but smooth. This episode traces the rise of Filipino nationalism, the controversial Wood-Forbes Mission, and the bitter debates in Washington over whether the United States could ever truly let go. We explore the role of governors like Francis Burton Harrison, the…
The First Philippine Commission: America's Civilian Empire
Before William Howard Taft became president and chief justice, he governed a colonial outpost on the far side of the world. This episode follows the First Philippine Commission — five men dispatched by President McKinley in 1899 to build a civil government from the ashes of the Spanish-American War. We trace the commission's journey from the streets of Manila to the rice terraces of Luzon, where Taft's 'policy of attraction' replaced the sword with courts, schools, and public works. We meet the…
The 1902 Cooper Act and America's First Colonial Land Law
In 1902, the United States Congress passed the Cooper Act, formally organizing the government of the Philippine Islands and setting land policy for the new colony. This episode follows the drafting and effects of the act, from its author Henry Allen Cooper to the debates over private property, the Torrens system, and the future of the Philippine archipelago. We look at the role of William Howard Taft, the Philippine Commission, and the resistance to American land laws. We also examine how the…
The 1904 Plattsburg Plan: America's Civilian Military Empire
In 1904, an obscure army manual written by William H. Carter and Elihu Root quietly transformed how the United States waged war. The Plattsburg Plan, a summer training camp for businessmen and college boys, turned civilian volunteers into officers overnight, creating a reserve officer corps that would lead America's armies through two world wars. This episode follows the improbable path from Root's General Staff reorganization to the 1916 Plattsburg camps that drew Woodrow Wilson's reluctant…
The 1907 Jamestown Exposition: America's Empire on Parade
In 1907, as the United States flexed its new naval power, the Jamestown Exposition celebrated the 300th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown, Virginia — and with it, the rise of America as a global empire. The fair showcased the Great White Fleet, the latest military technology, and exhibitions of the country's new colonial possessions, including the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Hawaii. Lucas and Luna explore the exposition's origins, its dazzling displays of naval might, the controversial…
The 1904 St. Louis World's Fair: America's Imperial Showcase
In 1904, St. Louis hosted the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, a world's fair that doubled as a grand celebration of America's new overseas empire. This episode explores how the fair brought the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and other colonial territories to the American heartland, featuring human exhibits in the Philippine Reservation, the Igorot 'dog-eaters' controversy, and the fair's role in shaping public opinion about empire. We discuss the fair's organizers, including David R. Francis and…
America's 1916 Jones Law and the Rise of Filipino Autonomy
In 1916, the Jones Law promised the Philippines eventual independence and created an elected Senate, reshaping America's colonial empire. This episode traces the law's origins in Woodrow Wilson's Democratic platform, the eloquent advocacy of Manuel Quezon and the Nacionalista Party, and the decisive role of Francis Burton Harrison, who handed real power to Filipino politicians. We explore the limits of the law—Washington still controlled foreign affairs and held a veto—and the surprising speed…
The 1903 US–Cuban Reciprocity Treaty: Sugar, Empire, and Dependence
In 1903, the United States and Cuba signed a Reciprocity Treaty that lowered tariffs on Cuban sugar in exchange for American goods entering the island almost duty-free. This episode looks at how that deal — pushed through by the Roosevelt administration and Cuban president Tomás Estrada Palma — locked Cuba into a role as a sugar colony for the United States. We talk about the Platt Amendment's shadow, the 20 percent tariff preference that seemed like a gift but was actually a leash, and how the…
The 1902 Cooper Act and America's First Colonial Land Law
In 1902, the United States passed the Cooper Act, a law that reorganized the Philippines' land system under American rule. But its real purpose was to dismantle the old Spanish-era estates and create a class of smallholding farmers loyal to Washington. In this episode, Lucas and Luna dig into the Act's practical effects: how it worked on the ground, who really benefited, and why it set the stage for decades of agrarian unrest. They trace the law's roots to the Philippine Organic Act, the…
Balangiga Massacre America's Brutal War in the Philippine Samar
In 1901, Filipino villagers in Balangiga ambushed American troops, killing 48. The US retaliation under General Jacob H. Smith was shockingly brutal—orders to kill all males over ten and turn Samar into a 'howling wilderness.' This episode examines the forgotten atrocity, the ensuing court-martial, and what it reveals about American imperial violence. We dive into the attack on September 28, 1901, the 'Balangiga bells' later returned as war trophies, and the moral costs of empire. A deep…
The 1916 US Occupation of the Dominican Republic
In 1916, the United States invaded and occupied the Dominican Republic, taking control of its customs, military, and government for eight years. This episode explores the roots of the intervention in Roosevelt's Corollary and Dollar Diplomacy, the 1916 Marine landing, the brutal counterinsurgency against the gavilleros, and the lasting impact on Dominican sovereignty. We discuss figures like President Juan Isidro Jimenes, rebel leader Desiderio Arias, and US General John H. Russell. Learn about…
The 1917 Purchase of the Danish West Indies
In 1917, the United States purchased the Danish West Indies (now the US Virgin Islands) for $25 million, acquiring a strategic Caribbean foothold at the height of World War I. This episode explores the decades-long negotiations, the economic decline that pushed Denmark to sell, the local perspectives of the mostly Black population under Danish rule, and the strategic calculations of President Woodrow Wilson and Secretary of State Robert Lansing. We also touch on the earlier failed 1867 treaty…
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