Episodes
The Dungan Revolt: China's Muslim Uprising
In 1862, a wave of anti-Qing rebellions swept across northwestern China, driven by ethnic and religious tensions between Han and Hui Muslims. The Dungan Revolt, as it came to be known, would last over a decade, devastate Shaanxi and Gansu, and result in the deaths of millions. This episode looks at the revolt through the eyes of its leaders—Ma Hualong, a Sufi master who became a military commander, and Zuo Zongtang, the Confucian general who finally crushed the uprising. We explore the roots of…
The Long March's Unfinished Road: Sino-Soviet Split
In this milestone 200th episode, Lucas and Luna step back from Mao's later campaigns to the ideological rupture that redrew the Cold War map — the Sino-Soviet split of 1960. They trace the road from Stalin's death and Khrushchev's Secret Speech to the Great Leap famine and the final break. Along the way: the Chinese students in Moscow, the border tensions that became the 1969 Zhenbao Island clash, and the strange afterlife of the split in today's Sino-Russian alliance. Lucas explains how Mao's…
The Opium War That Wasn't: The Arrow Incident and the Second Opium War
In 1856, a small Chinese-owned ship with a British flag sparked a war that would reshape China's relationship with the West. The Arrow incident, as it became known, was a tangle of legal loopholes, imperial pride, and diplomatic missteps that led to the Second Opium War. In this episode, Lucas and Luna untangle the affair: from the Arrow's disputed registration and the British consul Harry Parkes's aggressive demands to the bombardment of Guangzhou and the subsequent scramble for concessions.…
China's 1958 Taiwan Strait Crisis: Quemoy and the Brink of War
In 1958, Mao Zedong ordered a massive artillery bombardment of the offshore islands of Quemoy and Matsu, triggering the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis and bringing the United States and China to the edge of a nuclear confrontation. This episode unpacks the intricate diplomacy, military blunders, and secret messages that shaped the crisis. We explore Mao's motives—was it a genuine attempt to reclaim Taiwan or a strategic feint to test Washington's resolve? We follow the role of Eisenhower and…
The 1962 Border War: China's High-Altitude Lesson
In 1962, China and India fought a brief, brutal border war that reshaped Asia. This episode zooms in on the high-altitude battlefield, focusing on the Battle of Bum La in the eastern sector, where the PLA's General Zhang Guohua outmaneuvered Indian forces under General B. M. Kaul. We explore the dangerous geography of the Himalayas, the sheer logistics of moving troops at 14,000 feet, and the political fallout for both nations. From Nehru's 'Forward Policy' to Mao's unilateral ceasefire, we…
The Sino-Indian Border War of 1962: Nehru's Gamble and Mao's Lesson
In 1962, two newly independent Asian giants, China and India, clashed along their disputed Himalayan border. This episode examines the forgotten Sino-Indian War, from the British-era McMahon Line to the 1962 border clash. We follow the buildup through the 1950s—India's 'Hindi-Chini Bhai Bhai' friendship giving way to suspicion over Tibet, the Aksai Chin road, and the 1959 border incidents. Then we dive into the war itself: Nehru's 'Forward Policy,' the Chinese offensive that stunned the world…
The Marco Polo Bridge Incident: Japan's Road to War
In July 1937, a minor skirmish at the Marco Polo Bridge outside Beijing ignited a full-scale war between China and Japan. This episode follows the chain of miscalculations, local commanders' decisions, and political pressures in both Tokyo and Nanjing that turned a small clash into the opening of the Second Sino-Japanese War. We explore the strategic context: Japan's Kwantung Army ambitions, Chiang Kai-shek's focus on eliminating the Communists, and the fragile peace enforced by the Boxer…
The Sino-French War: China's Forgotten Naval Clash
In 1884, the Qing Dynasty went to war with France over Vietnam. The Sino-French War is often overshadowed by the Opium Wars and the Boxer Rebellion, but it was a turning point for China's military modernization and its place in the world. Lucas and Luna dive into the naval Battle of Fuzhou, where the French fleet annihilated the Fujian Fleet in hours, and the land campaign in Taiwan and Tonkin, where Chinese forces like Liu Mingchuan and Feng Zicai held their own. They explore the unlikely…
The Long March: China's Epic Retreat and Rebirth
In this episode of The Rise of Modern China, Lucas and Luna trace the Long March of 1934–35, the desperate breakout that turned a near-fatal retreat into the founding myth of the Chinese Communist Party. They follow Mao Zedong's rise at the Zunyi Conference, the battles along the Xiang River and at Luding Bridge, the brutal crossings of snow mountains and grasslands, and the shifting alliances with warlords and minorities. Through tales of hunger, sacrifice, and political maneuvering, they…
Zhu Di's Grand Fleet: Treasure Voyages That Reshaped the Indian Ocean
In the early 1400s, the Ming Dynasty launched a series of naval expeditions that dwarfed anything Europe would attempt for centuries. This episode explores the voyages of Admiral Zheng He, the eunuch who commanded a fleet of over 300 ships across the Indian Ocean, from the coast of East Africa to the spice islands of Southeast Asia. We trace the political ambitions of the Yongle Emperor, the engineering marvels of the treasure ships, and the diplomatic exchanges that brought giraffes, pearls…
Zhu Yuanzhang's Famine Years: How Hunger Built the Ming
Before he was the Hongwu Emperor, Zhu Yuanzhang was a starving orphan who watched his family die in a famine. His rise from beggar to founder of the Ming Dynasty shaped not just his own life, but the very character of Chinese imperial rule for centuries. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore how childhood hunger drove Zhu's obsession with agricultural stability, from the brutal land reforms and the Yellow Register census to the brutal purges of corrupt officials. They trace his early years as…
Mao's Last Gamble: The 1969 Sino-Soviet Border War
In 1969, the world's two largest communist powers teetered on the brink of nuclear war. This episode follows the escalating border clashes on the Ussuri River, from the bloody skirmish at Zhenbao Island to the secret Sino-American rapprochement that reshaped the Cold War. Lucas and Luna explore the paranoid politics of the Cultural Revolution, the Soviet leadership's internal debates over a preemptive strike, and how Mao Zedong used the crisis to break China's isolation and open the door to…
The Great Wall That Walks: Zhang Juzheng's Frontier
In this episode, Lucas and Luna step away from Beijing politics to look at Ming-era frontier defense through the eyes of Grand Secretary Zhang Juzheng, who in the 1570s rebuilt the Great Wall into a living system of watchtowers, artillery, and cavalry patrols. They discuss his contentious rise, the 'Single Whip' tax reform that funded it all, and the uneasy peace with the Mongol leader Altan Khan after decades of raids. The conversation also examines the wall's actual function—not a static…
China's 1976 Tangshan Earthquake: Nature's Fury and Political Silence
In July 1976, a magnitude 7.8 earthquake flattened Tangshan, killing an estimated 240,000 people and leaving a city in ruins. This episode of The Rise of Modern China examines the disaster through the lens of a nation in political upheaval: Mao Zedong's final months, the ongoing Cultural Revolution, and the government's initial refusal of foreign aid. We follow the story of the earthquake's forgotten heroes—the miners of the Lvjiatuo Coal Mine who survived for days underground—and explore how…
The Great Leap Famine: China's 1959-61 Catastrophe
In 1959, Mao Zedong's Great Leap Forward — a frantic push to industrialize and collectivize China — began to unravel into one of the deadliest famines in history. This episode unpacks the man-made catastrophe that killed tens of millions, focusing on the political blinders, the disastrous backyard steel furnaces, and the grain requisition quotas that stripped villages bare. We trace the rollback of the communes, the rise of Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping to manage the recovery, and the long…
China's Punitive War: The 1979 Invasion of Vietnam
In February 1979, China launched a brief but bloody invasion of Vietnam, code-named Operation 1-5. This episode dives into the strategic calculus behind Deng Xiaoping's decision to 'teach Vietnam a lesson' after decades of tension. We follow the People's Liberation Army as it pushes into the northern provinces of Lạng Sơn and Cao Bằng, led by veterans Yang Dezhi and Xu Shiyou. The war was a punitive strike, but it also revealed deep weaknesses in China's military after the Cultural Revolution.…
Mao's Yan'an Rectification: Purifying the Party
In Yan'an in 1942, Mao Zedong launched the Rectification Movement (Zhengfeng Yundong) to purge 'subjectivism, sectarianism, and party formalism' from the Chinese Communist Party. This episode explores how Mao used a series of study sessions, confessions, and investigations to silence his rivals—especially the Soviet-backed 'Internationalists' like Wang Ming—and to cement his own ideological supremacy. We look at the famous 'Talks at the Yan'an Forum on Literature and Art', where Mao demanded…
China's Secret Decision to Enter the Korean War and the Battle of Chosin Reservoir
In 1950, just one year after founding the People's Republic, Mao Zedong made a fateful decision to send Chinese troops into the Korean War. This episode zooms in on the secret deliberations in Beijing—where Mao overruled cautious advisers—and then follows the People's Volunteer Army under Peng Dehuai into the brutal winter of northeast Korea. We focus on the Battle of Chosin Reservoir (Changjin Lake), where outnumbered and poorly equipped Chinese divisions encircled US Marines in subzero…
The Handshake That Changed the World: Nixon in China 1972
In February 1972, Richard Nixon became the first U.S. president to visit the People's Republic of China, a moment that reshaped global diplomacy. But the road to that handshake began a year earlier with a secret trip by Henry Kissinger and an unlikely game of ping-pong. This episode traces the diplomatic dance between Zhou Enlai, Mao Zedong, and the Nixon administration, from the 1971 Ping-Pong Diplomacy to the clandestine Kissinger mission in Islamabad, and finally to the seven days in Beijing…
Deng Xiaoping's Third Plenum: China's 1978 Leap to Market
In December 1978, China's Communist Party convened the Third Plenum of the 11th Central Committee in Beijing's Jingxi Hotel. Behind closed doors, Deng Xiaoping masterminded a reversal of Mao-era policies that would reshape the nation. This episode walks through the 'practice is the sole criterion for testing truth' debate that broke Maoist dogma, the dismantling of the commune system via the household responsibility system, and the creation of the first special economic zones like Shenzhen. We…
The Founding of the Chinese Communist Party: 1921 Shanghai Congress
In July 1921, thirteen delegates gathered secretly in a Shanghai lane to found the Chinese Communist Party. This episode tells the story of that First National Congress: the intellectual ferment after May Fourth, the early Marxist study groups, the role of Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu, and the unexpected police raid that forced the delegates to flee to a pleasure boat on South Lake in Jiaxing. We explore the influence of the Comintern through Maring (Henk Sneevliet), the ideological splits between…
Hong Xiuquan's Taiping Rebellion: China's Bloody Civil War
In the mid-19th century, a failed civil service examinee named Hong Xiuquan launched a rebellion that would convulse China for fourteen years. Claiming to be the younger brother of Jesus Christ, he built a theocratic kingdom that challenged Confucian orthodoxy, abolished private property, and championed gender equality. The Taiping Rebellion—centered on their 'Heavenly Capital' Nanjing—mobilized millions and devastated the Qing dynasty's heartland. This episode explores Hong's apocalyptic…
The Boxer Rebellion: China's Violent Stand Against Foreign Influence
In 1900, a grassroots anti-foreign movement known as the Boxers swept across northern China, leading to a 55-day siege of foreign legations in Beijing. This episode explores the origins of the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, Empress Dowager Cixi's fateful decision to support the Boxers, the disastrous international intervention by the Eight-Nation Alliance, and the crushing Boxer Protocol that pushed China further into debt and humiliation. We delve into key figures like Cixi, Prince…
The May Fourth Movement: China's Cultural Revolution Before Mao
In 1919, China was betrayed at Versailles. The country had sent thousands of laborers to support the Allies in World War I, expecting to reclaim German concessions in Shandong. Instead, those territories were handed to Japan. On May 4th, over 3,000 students from Peking University and other schools marched on Tiananmen, burning official residences and demanding national sovereignty. That single day sparked a decade-long intellectual and cultural upheaval known as the New Culture Movement.…
The Hundred Days' Reform of 1898 and Cixi's Coup
In 1898, the young Guangxu Emperor launched a dramatic reform campaign—the Hundred Days' Reform—to save China from collapse after the disastrous Sino-Japanese War. Inspired by the scholar Kang Youwei, the emperor issued a series of radical decrees to modernise the Qing state, education, and military. But the Empress Dowager Cixi, with support from conservative officials, crushed the movement in a bloody coup, executing six leading reformers and imprisoning the emperor. This episode looks at the…
China's 1911 Revolution: The Wuchang Uprising
In October 1911, an accidental bomb blast in the Russian Concession of Hankou set off a chain reaction that toppled the 268-year-old Qing dynasty. This episode dives into the Wuchang Uprising — the military revolt that began with a premature explosion, forced the revolutionaries' hand, and within months brought down China's last imperial house. We trace the role of the New Army, the reluctant leadership of General Li Yuanhong, Sun Yat-sen's election as provisional president from afar, and the…
China's 1950s Collectivisation: From Land Reform to the Commune
In this episode, Lucas and Luna examine one of the most transformative and disruptive policies of early Communist China: the collectivisation of agriculture. Beginning with the Land Reform Law of 1950, which redistributed land to millions of poor peasants, the conversation traces the rapid escalation through Mutual Aid Teams, Lower-stage Agricultural Producers' Cooperatives, and Higher-stage Cooperatives, culminating in the People's Communes of 1958. They explore the ideological drive behind…
Emperor Taizong and the Tang Dynasty Golden Age
Step into the glittering court of Tang Taizong, the second emperor of the Tang dynasty who reigned from 626 to 649 AD. Lucas and Luna explore how Li Shimin, a prince who seized power in a bloody coup known as the Xuanwu Gate Incident, became one of China's greatest rulers. They examine Taizong's policies: the equal-field system that redistributed land to peasants, the civil service exams that broke aristocratic monopolies, and the multicultural capital Chang'an where Persians, Turks, and…
China's 1787 Merchant Wang Zhen and the Opium Trade That Shaped a Dynasty
In 1787, a Chinese merchant named Wang Zhen was executed for smuggling opium into Qing China—decades before the Opium Wars. This episode explores the early opium trade under Emperor Qianlong, the Yongzheng-era prohibitions, and how internal corruption and foreign demand quietly corroded the empire long before British cannons arrived. We look at the specifics: the East India Company's role, the Macau trading system, the rise of the 'foreign mud' (yang yao) addiction among officials and soldiers…
China's 1953 First Five-Year Plan: Soviet Blueprint for Heavy Industry
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore China's First Five-Year Plan (1953-1957), the massive Soviet-assisted industrialization drive that transformed a shattered agrarian economy into a nascent industrial power. They focus on the 156 key projects—steel mills in Anshan, tractor factories in Luoyang, and the new industrial city of Baotou—and how Soviet engineers, Chinese workers, and Maoist political campaigns shaped the plan's triumphs and hidden costs. The conversation covers the role of Li…
China's 1964 Atomic Bomb and the Rise of Nuclear Ambition
In this episode of The Rise of Modern China: From Empire to Superpower, Lucas and Luna explore China's secretive path to becoming a nuclear power. They focus on the 1964 Lop Nur test, the engineers and scientists behind the breakthrough, and the political context of Mao Zedong's decision to pursue the bomb amid the Sino-Soviet split and the Great Leap Famine. The conversation covers the role of Soviet aid and its abrupt withdrawal, the leadership of Nie Rongzhen and Deng Jiaxian, and the iconic…
China's 1950 Marriage Law and Women's Liberation
In 1950, China enacted the Marriage Law, a radical piece of legislation that outlawed arranged marriages, child brides, and concubinage. The law declared free choice in marriage, equal rights to property and divorce, and was enforced by the Women's Federation. Lucas and Luna explore how this law aimed to dismantle Confucian patriarchy, the challenges of implementation in rural areas where resistance was fierce, and the tragic irony that during the Cultural Revolution, women's rights were often…
China's 1954 Constitution: Mao's Vision for Law and Order
In this episode of The Rise of Modern China, Lucas and Luna explore the creation of China's first formal constitution in 1954. They discuss how Mao Zedong and the Chinese Communist Party used the constitution to consolidate power after the civil war, the role of Soviet legal advisors, the public participation campaign that gathered over a million suggestions, and the document's blend of socialist principles with Chinese conditions. The episode examines key figures like Liu Shaoqi and Zhou…
China's 1951-52 Three-Anti and Five-Anti Campaigns
In the early 1950s, Mao Zedong launched two sweeping campaigns that reshaped China's cities: the Three-Antis (sanfan) targeting corruption, waste, and bureaucratism within the party and government, followed by the Five-Antis (wufan) aimed at the urban bourgeoisie for bribery, tax evasion, theft of state property, cheating on government contracts, and stealing state economic secrets. This episode focuses on the Five-Anti campaign's impact on Shanghai's business community, the role of the…
China's 1970 Anti-Pornography Crackdown and the Campaign Against Bourgeois Liberalism
In 1970, as the Cultural Revolution raged, the Chinese Communist Party launched a nationwide anti-pornography campaign targeting obscene materials, feudal remnants, and bourgeois influences. This episode of The Rise of Modern China examines the campaign's origins in Mao's fear of ideological pollution, its enforcement by the People's Liberation Army and local revolutionary committees, and its impact on literature, art, and everyday life. We discuss the burning of books, the purging of foreign…
China's 1950 Marriage Law and the Liberation of Women
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the 1950 Marriage Law, one of the earliest and most transformative pieces of legislation passed by the People's Republic of China. They discuss how the law outlawed arranged marriages, child brides, and concubinage, and legalized divorce — a radical break from Confucian patriarchy. The conversation covers the law's implementation challenges, especially in rural areas where local cadres and women's associations fought deep-seated resistance. Lucas…
China's 1951-59 Tibetan Uprising and the Dalai Lama's Flight
In this episode of The Rise of Modern China, Lucas and Luna explore the events leading up to the 1959 Tibetan Uprising and the Dalai Lama's dramatic escape into exile. They trace the roots of the conflict back to the 1951 Seventeen-Point Agreement, which brought Tibet under Chinese control while promising autonomy. The conversation delves into the growing tensions in Lhasa, the role of the Kashag (the Tibetan government), and the failed efforts at negotiation. Lucas explains the clash between…
China's 1959 Tibetan Uprising: The Dalai Lama's Flight Into Exile
In March 1959, a simmering revolt in the Tibetan capital of Lhasa exploded into open rebellion against Chinese rule. Over several days, thousands of Tibetans surrounded the Norbulingka palace, the summer residence of the 14th Dalai Lama, demanding an end to collectivization, the repression of religion, and the influx of Han Chinese cadres. The People's Liberation Army, already stationed in force, responded with overwhelming firepower, crushing the uprising within days. Amid the chaos, the Dalai…
The 1975 Campaign to Criticize Lin Biao and Confucius
In 1975, Mao Zedong's ailing regime launched a bizarre ideological campaign linking the dead Defense Minister Lin Biao to the ancient philosopher Confucius. This episode of The Rise of Modern China explores the so-called 'Criticize Lin Biao, Criticize Confucius' movement — pi Lin pi Kong — as a coded power struggle between Mao, the Gang of Four, and the rehabilitated Deng Xiaoping. We trace how Zhou Enlai, while dying of cancer, was subtly attacked through historical allegory. The campaign…
China's 1966-69 Cultural Revolution: The Red Guard Movement and the Crackdown
In this episode of The Rise of Modern China, Lucas and Luna delve into the early, chaotic years of Mao's Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. They focus on the Red Guard movement—its sudden birth in 1966, the violent crackdowns on teachers and 'bourgeois' authority, the factional battles between conservative and rebel groups, and Mao's ultimate decision to purge the Red Guards themselves in 1968-69. The conversation covers key figures like Mao Zedong, Lin Biao, Jiang Qing, and Zhou Enlai, and…
China's 1978 Democracy Wall Movement
In late 1978, as Deng Xiaoping consolidated power, a brick wall in central Beijing became the stage for China's most daring public debate in decades. Citizens pasted handwritten big-character posters demanding political reform, legal rights, and an end to Mao-era crimes. Lucas and Luna explore the brief but electric Democracy Wall movement (minzhu qiang) centered on Xidan, its iconic poster 'The Fifth Modernization' by dissident Wei Jingsheng, the role of Deng Xiaoping's ambiguous signal, and…
China's 1978 Third Plenum That Launched Reform and Opening
In December 1978, as Deng Xiaoping was returning from his historic visit to Japan, a far more consequential meeting was taking place in Beijing's Zhongnanhai — the Third Plenum of the 11th Central Committee. This episode unpacks the political maneuvering and ideological shifts that turned the Third Plenum into the watershed moment for China's reform and opening-up. We trace the power struggle between Deng and Hua Guofeng, the rehabilitation of cadres purged during the Cultural Revolution, the…
China's 1971 Ping-Pong Diplomacy That Opened the Door
In April 1971, a chance encounter between American table tennis player Glenn Cowan and Chinese champion Zhuang Zedong on a bus in Nagoya, Japan, set off a chain of events that reshaped global politics. This episode unpacks the full story of Ping-Pong diplomacy: how Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai seized on an unexpected moment to break two decades of Sino-American hostility. We trace the journey of the US table tennis team to Beijing, their matches in the Great Hall of the People, and the handshake…
China's 1958 Great Leap Famine: The Human Toll of Mao's Vision
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the aftermath of Mao Zedong's Great Leap Forward (1958-1962), focusing on the catastrophic famine that followed the backyard steel furnace campaign. Building on prior episodes about the Four Pests Campaign and Dazhai, they discuss the role of local cadres, grain requisition quotas, and the failure of communication between Beijing and the countryside. Specific focus is on Henan province, where exaggerated output reports led to massive grain seizures and…
China's 1955 Campaign to Simplify Written Chinese
In 1955, the Chinese government launched an ambitious effort to simplify the written language, aiming to boost literacy among hundreds of millions of people. Lucas and Luna explore the First Chinese Character Simplification Scheme adopted in 1956, which reduced the number of strokes in over 500 characters. They discuss the role of linguist Zhou Youguang, the debates between traditionalists and reformers, and how simplified characters spread through education and propaganda. The episode also…
China's 1969 Sino-Soviet Border War: The Zhenbao Island Clash
In March 1969, a small frozen island on the Ussuri River became the flashpoint for one of the most dangerous confrontations of the Cold War. When Chinese and Soviet troops clashed on Zhenbao Island, the world came closer than ever to a nuclear war between the two communist giants. This episode pieces together the week-long skirmish that killed hundreds, the secret diplomacy that followed, and the paranoid calculations inside Mao's Zhongnanhai. We trace the tangled history of the Sino-Soviet…
China's 1958 Backyard Steel Furnaces: The Human Cost of Mao's Great Leap
In 1958, Mao Zedong launched the Great Leap Forward, a campaign to rapidly industrialize China. Central to this was the backyard steel furnace movement, where millions of peasants were ordered to produce steel in primitive, homemade furnaces. This episode follows the story of a typical village in Henan province, where farmers abandoned their fields to melt down tools, pots, and even window grilles in a desperate push to meet impossible quotas. We explore the role of local party cadres, the…
The 1979 Sino-Vietnamese War: China's Punitive Lesson
In February 1979, China launched a massive invasion of Vietnam, plunging into a brutal month-long conflict that reshaped Southeast Asia. This episode of Fexingo History dives into the strategic calculus behind the war: China's desire to 'teach Vietnam a lesson' after Hanoi's invasion of Cambodia and its alignment with Moscow. We follow the People's Liberation Army as it crosses the border into Cao Bang, Lao Cai, and Lang Son, facing fierce resistance from battle-hardened Vietnamese troops.…
The 1972 Shanghai Communiqué That Remade US-China Relations
In February 1972, Richard Nixon landed in Beijing and shook hands with Mao Zedong — a moment that upended decades of Cold War hostility. But behind the historic handshake lay a grueling negotiation over a single document: the Shanghai Communiqué. This episode goes inside the drafting room, where Zhou Enlai and Henry Kissinger wrestled over every syllable on Taiwan, troop withdrawals, and the phrase 'one China.' It's a masterclass in diplomatic ambiguity — language crafted to let two bitter…
China's 1934 Jiangxi Soviet Collapse and the Long March
In October 1934, Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, and the Chinese Communist Party faced annihilation as Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist forces tightened a noose around their Jiangxi Soviet base. This episode traces the final weeks of the 'Chinese Soviet Republic' in Ruijin, the desperate breakout through Nationalist blockhouses, and the beginning of the Long March—a 6,000-mile retreat that would redefine the CCP. We look at the strategic miscalculations of Otto Braun, the Comintern advisor, the brutal…
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