Episodes
The Bactrian Frontier: Cyrus's Eastern Empire
In this episode, Lucas and Luna step east of the familiar Mesopotamian heartland to explore the Achaemenid Empire's farthest reach: Bactria, Sogdia, and the lands beyond the Jaxartes River. They examine how Cyrus the Great secured these eastern satrapies, the role of the Saka and Massagetae tribes, and the foundation of Cyropolis — a city that would later slow Alexander the Great. The conversation touches on the strategic importance of the qanat irrigation system, the melting pot of cultures…
Cyrus's Daughter: Atossa and the Women of the Achaemenid Court
In this episode of The Persian Empire, Lucas and Luna step away from the battlefield and into the royal household, exploring the life and influence of Cyrus the Great's daughter, Atossa. They discuss her marriages to Cambyses, the false Smerdis, and Darius I, and how she navigated a world of palace intrigue, political marriage, and royal succession. Along the way, they touch on the Greek sources — Herodotus and Aeschylus — that tell us about her, and the limits of what we can know from those…
Cyrus's Capital: Pasargadae and the Persian Garden
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the heart of Cyrus the Great's empire: Pasargadae, the ceremonial capital he built in the Persian heartland. They walk through the ruins of the palace complex, the famous Four Gardens, and the enigmatic tomb of Cyrus himself. Along the way, they unpack the political and spiritual symbolism of the site — how Cyrus blended Elamite, Assyrian, and Median traditions into a new Achaemenid style, and how his garden design became a template for paradise on Earth.…
Cyrus's Engineers: The Qanat Water Revolution
In this episode of The Persian Empire, Lucas and Luna dive into one of Cyrus the Great's least celebrated but most transformative innovations: the qanat. As Cyrus expanded his realm from the Mediterranean to the Indus, he faced a silent crisis—how to water new cities and armies in arid lands. The answer lay underground: a network of gently sloping tunnels that tapped mountain aquifers and delivered water for miles without evaporation. Lucas explains the engineering behind qanats, the social…
The King's Justice: How Cyrus Treated Conquered Peoples
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore how Cyrus the Great's approach to conquered peoples — from Babylon to the Greek cities of Ionia — shaped the Achaemenid Empire's reputation for tolerance. They dig into the Cyrus Cylinder as evidence of his policies, the restoration of sanctuaries, the return of exiled communities, and the careful blend of local autonomy with imperial oversight. Contrasting Cyrus with earlier Assyrian and Babylonian rulers, they discuss how his rhetoric of liberation and…
Cyrus the Great's Legacy: The Empire That Outlived Him
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore how Cyrus the Great's empire not only survived his death but thrived, focusing on the administrative and cultural structures that outlasted him. They discuss the satrapy system, the Royal Road, and the policy of religious tolerance that Cyrus established, and how these were maintained and expanded by his successors, especially Darius I. The episode also touches on the Cyrus Cylinder, often called the first human rights charter, and how its message of…
Cyrus's Bodyguards: The Kings Who Died for Persia
Before the Immortals of Xerxes, Cyrus the Great fielded a personal guard of 10,000 elite warriors—the Apple Bearers—who carried golden pomegranates on their spears and swore a blood oath to protect the king. In this episode, Lucas and Luna delve into the origins, training, and battlefield role of these royal bodyguards, tracing their evolution from Cyrus's own guard under his father Cambyses I to their deployment at Thymbra, where their discipline turned the tide against Croesus's Lydian…
Cyrus's Ingenious Siege of Sardis: How He Really Took the City
In this episode, Lucas and Luna dig into the siege of Sardis in 546 BC — the moment Cyrus the Great finally brought Lydia's capital to its knees. Herodotus tells a story of an impossible citadel, a forgotten path, and a Persian force that scaled what everyone thought was unclimbable. But recent archaeology at the site's 'Persian fortification' suggests the real story may be more complex — and more brutal — than the legend. They examine the roles of Harpagus, the Lydian king Croesus, and the…
Cyrus's Spies: The King's Eyes and Ears
In this episode, we explore the intelligence network of the Achaemenid Empire—the 'King's Eyes and Ears'—that helped Cyrus the Great and his successors maintain control over a vast territory. We look at the role of royal spies, the use of the Royal Road for rapid communication, and the famous story of the Fish-Man of Sardis, where a secret message was hidden inside a fish. We also consider how this system influenced later empires, from the Romans to the Safavids, and how it balanced…
The Battle of Opis: Cyrus's Decisive Victory Over Babylon
Long before Cyrus the Great entered Babylon without a fight, he had to win a battle—and the Battle of Opis in 539 BCE was the turning point. This episode unpacks the military campaign that preceded the famous bloodless conquest, looking at the forces involved, the strategic river crossing, and the crushing defeat that sent Babylon's army fleeing. We examine the Cypriot and Greek mercenaries, the role of the Gutians, and the brutal aftermath that followed the fall of Opis. Drawing on the…
Cyrus the Great's Succession: Cambyses and the Empire's First Crisis
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the often-overlooked succession of Cyrus the Great—the moment when the empire's future hung on the ambitions of his eldest son, Cambyses II. They trace Cambyses's early years as Cyrus's co-ruler, his role in the conquest of Babylon, and the tense transition after Cyrus's death at the hands of the Massagetae. The conversation unpacks the sources: Herodotus's dramatic account of Cambyses's madness, the Egyptian records that hint at a different story, and…
Cyrus's Royal Feast: The Banquet That Ruled Persia
Long before Cyrus the Great marched on Babylon, he mastered a subtler weapon: the royal feast. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the Achaemenid table as an instrument of empire. From the opulent banquets at Pasargadae, where Cyrus dined on exotic meats and fine wines amid gardens and flowing water, to the strict etiquette that governed who sat where and who ate first, the feast was a microcosm of Persian power. We trace the logistics of feeding an empire — the royal kitchens, the taster's…
Cyrus the Great: The Man Behind the Cylinder
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the human story behind the Cyrus Cylinder, often called the first declaration of human rights. They discuss how Cyrus the Great, after conquering Babylon in 539 BC, presented himself as a liberator rather than a conqueror, and how that image was carefully crafted. From the propaganda of the Babylonian priests to the archaeological discovery by Hormuzd Rassam in 1879, they unpack what the cylinder actually says, what it leaves out, and why its legacy…
Cyrus the Great's Death: The Head of Tomyris and the Massagetae
In this episode, Lucas and Luna dig into the final chapter of Cyrus the Great's life: his last campaign against the Massagetae, a nomadic people of the Central Asian steppe, and his death in battle around 530 BCE. They parse the accounts of Herodotus, who tells the story of Queen Tomyris and her gruesome revenge — dipping Cyrus's head in blood — while also considering the more sober versions found in the writings of Ctesias and Berossus. Lucas pieces together what we can actually know about the…
Cyrus's Last War: The Battle That Shaped an Empire
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the dramatic final campaign of Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. They focus on his campaigns beyond the Jaxartes River into Central Asia, specifically the conflict with the Massagetae and their queen, Tomyris. Drawing from Herodotus and other ancient sources, they examine the strategic context, the brutal battle, and how Cyrus's death shaped the empire's future. The discussion also touches on the question of whether Cyrus was…
Cyrus the Great's Satrapy System How He Governed an Empire
This episode explores the administrative genius of Cyrus the Great: the satrapy system that held his vast empire together. From the appointment of satraps and the annual tribute to the Royal Road and the use of Aramaic as a lingua franca, Lucas and Luna discuss how Cyrus built a governance model that lasted centuries. The episode also touches on the checks and balances that prevented rebellion and the legacy of Persian administration adopted by later empires, including Alexander the Great.…
Gobryas and the Fall of Babylon: One Man or Two
In this episode of The Persian Empire, Lucas and Luna delve into the story behind Babylon's peaceful surrender to Cyrus the Great. The key figure is Gobryas—or Ugbaru, depending on which ancient source you read. Was this a single defector, or two different men? We explore the evidence from the Nabonidus Chronicle, the Cyropaedia, and other records to untangle the mystery of the Babylonian governor who opened the city gates. Along the way, we examine Cyrus's policy of incorporating local elites…
The Royal Road: How Cyrus Connected the Persian Empire
The Persian Royal Road was far more than a simple trade route — it was the circulatory system of the largest empire the world had ever seen. Spanning over 2,500 kilometers from Susa to Sardis, this network of post stations, guarded waypoints, and relay riders allowed messages to cross the empire in just seven days. But who really built it? While Herodotus credits Darius I, we explore the evidence that Cyrus and his predecessors laid the foundations. Learn about the chaparkhaneh post houses, the…
Cyrus the Great's Mythic Origins: The Herdsman's Son
Where does a legend begin? For Cyrus the Great, founder of the Persian Empire, his infancy is wrapped in myth. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the conflicting accounts of Cyrus's birth and childhood as told by Herodotus, Ctesias, and the Nabonidus Chronicle. They examine the story of the infant Cyrus being ordered killed by his grandfather Astyages, only to be saved by a herdsman, and how this tale mirrors other hero myths from Rome to India. They discuss the historical clues behind the…
Cyrus and the Exiles: The Decree That Changed History
In 538 BCE, Cyrus the Great issued a decree that allowed the Jewish exiles to return from Babylon to Jerusalem and rebuild their Temple. This episode explores the historical context of that edict—how Cyrus's policy of repatriation was part of a broader strategy of religious tolerance and political consolidation. We examine the biblical accounts in Ezra and Isaiah, the parallel evidence from the Cyrus Cylinder, and the profound impact on Jewish identity and the development of the Second Temple.…
The Fall of Babylon: Cyrus's Bloodless Conquest
In 539 BCE, Cyrus the Great achieved one of the most stunning conquests in ancient history: the capture of Babylon without a major battle. This episode unpacks the Nabonidus Chronicle's account, the Battle of Opis on the Tigris, the mysterious figure of Ugbaru the governor of Gutium, and how Cyrus's army entered Babylon through its river gates. We also examine the propaganda war—how Babylonian priests and writers framed Cyrus as a liberator against the unpopular king Nabonidus—and the reality…
Cyrus the Great's Eastern Campaigns: Conquering Central Asia and the Indus Frontier
We've explored Cyrus the Great's western victories—Babylon, Lydia, the Medes—but his eastern campaigns were just as crucial to building the Persian Empire. In this episode, Lucas and Luna venture east of Persepolis, into the lands of Bactria, Sogdia, and Gandhara. Lucas unpacks the scant historical sources—Herodotus, Ctesias, and Xenophon's Cyropaedia—to piece together Cyrus's conquest of Central Asia and his push toward the Indus. Learn about the fortress Kyreschata on the Jaxartes River, the…
The Revolt of Pactyes: How Cyrus Crushed a Lydian Rebellion
After conquering Lydia and capturing King Croesus, Cyrus the Great faced a dangerous uprising. The Lydian treasurer Pactyes, entrusted with Croesus's gold, used the wealth to hire mercenaries and besieged the Persian garrison in Sardis. Cyrus dispatched his general Harpagus to suppress the revolt. Pactyes fled to the Greek coastal cities, seeking asylum. The oracle of Delphi advised the city of Cyme to hand him over, but when the Cymeans wavered, Pactyes moved to Mytilene and finally Chios…
Cyrus the Great's Tomb: The Monument That Survived Alexander
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the final resting place of Cyrus the Great—the simple stone tomb at Pasargadae that has stood for over two millennia. From ancient accounts by Arrian and Strabo to the story of Alexander the Great's pilgrimage, we examine what the tomb reveals about Cyrus's character, the controversies over its original inscriptions, and how it became a symbol of Persian identity. We also discuss the modern efforts to preserve the site and the ongoing debates about…
How Cyrus Conquered Lydia: The Battle That Made Persia an Empire
Long before Cyrus the Great entered Babylon, he faced his greatest test: the wealthy kingdom of Lydia under King Croesus. This episode dives into the 547 BCE campaign that turned Cyrus from a regional power into a world-conqueror. We walk through the Battle of Thymbra, where Cyrus used camels to spook Lydian horses, the relentless siege of Sardis, and the mysterious fate of Croesus—whether he was burned on a pyre or became Cyrus's advisor. Along the way, we explore Spartan intervention, the…
Croesus and Cyrus: The King Who Became an Advisor
In this episode, we unravel the mystery of Croesus, the fabled king of Lydia, after his defeat by Cyrus the Great. Did Cyrus truly spare his life and make him a trusted advisor, as Herodotus claims? Or did he meet a harsher end, as other ancient sources suggest? We dive into the conflicting accounts from Herodotus and Ctesias, the archaeological hints from the Nabonidus Chronicle, and the legendary story of Croesus and Solon. We also explore how Cyrus's treatment of the conquered Lydian king…
Cyrus the Great's Qanat System The Underground Water Network That Sustained an Empire
Long before the Roman aqueducts, the Persians carved a network of underground canals across the arid heartland of their empire. These qanats — gently sloping tunnels that tapped groundwater and carried it for kilometers — were the silent infrastructure that made the Achaemenid Empire possible. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the engineering behind the qanat system, focusing on the qanats around Cyrus's capital at Pasargadae. They discuss how the tunnels were dug, how they worked without…
Cyrus the Great's Religious Tolerance: The Cyrus Cylinder Decoded
In this episode of The Persian Empire, Lucas and Luna delve into Cyrus the Great's revolutionary policy of religious tolerance. They decode the Cyrus Cylinder, often called the first charter of human rights, and place it in its historical context: Cyrus's conquest of Babylon in 539 BCE. The conversation explores how Cyrus restored cults across Mesopotamia, returned displaced deities, and won loyalty through persuasion rather than force. They compare his approach to Assyrian and Babylonian…
Cyrus the Great and the Medes: Alliance or Conquest
The relationship between Cyrus the Great and the Medes is one of the most debated puzzles of ancient history. Did Cyrus conquer his Median overlords in a violent rebellion, or did he inherit their empire peacefully through a dynastic marriage? In this episode, Lucas and Luna sift through the contradictory evidence: the Greek histories of Herodotus and Ctesias, the Nabonidus Chronicle, and hints from the Cyrus Cylinder. They explore Astyages, the last Median king; Harpagus, the defector who may…
Cyrus the Great's Persian Navy: The Fleet That Never Was
When we think of the Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great, we imagine cavalry archers, the Immortals, and siege engines. But what about ships? In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore a surprising gap in the Achaemenid military machine: Cyrus had no real navy for most of his conquests. They trace how the Persians relied on Phoenician and Ionian allies for their early maritime campaigns, how Cyrus's conquest of Lydia and Babylon didn't require a fleet, and how the first true Persian navy was…
Cyrus the Great's Pasargadae: The Lost Capital
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore Pasargadae, the first capital of the Achaemenid Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great around 546 BCE. They discuss the city's layout, the famous Gate R, the palace complex with its audience hall (apadana), and the enigmatic 'Prison of Solomon'—a structure whose purpose remains debated. The conversation highlights Cyrus's tomb, a simple stone monument that still stands near the ruins, and its inscription cursing anyone who disturbs it. They delve into the…
Cyrus the Great and the Zoroastrian Prophecy of Empire
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the religious dimension of Cyrus the Great's reign, focusing on Zoroastrianism and how the Achaemenid king used the faith to legitimize his rule. They discuss the role of the Magi as priestly advisors, the concept of khvarenah (divine glory) in royal inscriptions, and the controversial theory that Cyrus was a Zoroastrian. The conversation also touches on the Gathas, the oldest Zoroastrian texts, and how Cyrus's policy of religious tolerance—like the…
Cyrus the Great's Capital Pasargadae City of the Persians
In this episode of The Persian Empire, Lucas and Luna explore Pasargadae, the ceremonial capital built by Cyrus the Great after his conquest of Babylon in 539 BCE. They discuss the site's layout, the famous four-winged guardian figure at Gate R, and the enigmatic tomb of Cyrus itself — a simple gabled stone structure that has survived for over 2,500 years. The conversation delves into the blend of Elamite, Assyrian, Egyptian, and Ionian influences in Pasargadae's architecture, reflecting…
Cyrus the Great and the Persian Immortals: Myth vs Reality
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the Persian Immortals, the legendary 10,000-strong elite unit of the Achaemenid Empire. They separate fact from fiction, examining Herodotus' accounts, the Persepolis Fortification Tablets, and archaeological evidence. Discover how the Immortals were organized, their role in battle, and their symbolic importance. The discussion covers the sparabara shield-bearers, the hazarapatish commander, and the Immortals' evolution from Cyrus to Xerxes. Lucas…
Cyrus the Great's Last Battle: The Massagetae and the River
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the final campaign of Cyrus the Great — his 530 BCE war against the Massagetae tribe led by Queen Tomyris. Drawing on Herodotus, the Babylonian chronicles, and archaeological clues from the Syr Darya region, they unpack what drove Cyrus eastward, the brutal tactics of the Massagetae, and the conflicting accounts of his death. Was he killed in battle, or did Tomyris really dunk his head in a wineskin of blood? They also examine how later Persian kings…
Cyrus's Forgotten Victory: The Battle of the Persian Border (551 BCE)
After conquering Media, Cyrus the Great faced a crisis. His former ally, King Croesus of Lydia, invaded the newborn Persian empire. But the famous story of Croesus consulting the Oracle of Delphi and a 'great empire' falling hides a crucial detail: the Battle of the Persian Border, fought in 551 BCE in the no-man's-land between Lydia and Media. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the diplomatic breakdown, the spy network that warned Cyrus, and the battle itself — a clash of Lydian cavalry…
Cyrus the Great's Spies: The Persian Intelligence Network
Long before modern intelligence agencies, the Achaemenid Empire maintained a vast network of spies, informants, and royal eyes that kept Cyrus the Great informed of threats and plots across his sprawling domain. This episode delves into the shadowy world of Persian espionage, from the 'King's Eyes and Ears' — elite agents who reported directly to the throne — to the use of diplomatic gifts, bribes, and intercepted letters. We explore how Cyrus inherited spy networks from the Assyrians and…
The Persian Gift Economy: How Cyrus Traded Loyalty for Empire
How did Cyrus the Great hold together a sprawling, multicultural empire without a standing army or a unified bureaucracy? The answer lies in a system of reciprocal gift-giving that bound Persian kings to their subjects — and their subjects to each other. Drawing on the Persepolis Fortification Tablets, Xenophon's Cyropaedia, and Old Persian inscriptions, this episode unpacks the economics of loyalty in the Achaemenid realm. We explore how the king's 'eye' was not just a spy network but a…
Cyrus the Great and the Royal Road Tax
In this episode of The Persian Empire, Lucas and Luna explore a lesser-known cornerstone of Achaemenid rule: how Cyrus the Great taxed trade along the Royal Road. They discuss the standardized tolls collected at chaparkhaneh stations, the role of the ganzabara (treasury officials) in auditing revenue, and how these taxes funded the empire's infrastructure — from the qanat irrigation systems to the courier network. They touch on the Persepolis Fortification Tablets as primary evidence, compare…
Cyrus the Great and the Persian King's Eye: The Empire's Secret Police
In this episode of The Persian Empire, Lucas and Luna explore the shadowy institution known as the 'King's Eye' — the Achaemenid secret intelligence network that helped Cyrus the Great and his successors hold together a sprawling empire from the Indus to the Aegean. Drawing on Greek sources like Xenophon's Cyropaedia and Persian administrative tablets, they delve into how the 'King's Eye' (in Old Persian: *spasaka*) acted as an early intelligence bureau, dispatching inspectors known as the…
Cyrus the Great's Elamite Roots: The Origins of Persia
Long before Cyrus the Great raised the Persian standard, the land of Persis was part of the Elamite world. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore Cyrus's deep Elamite heritage — from the language on his inscriptions to the administrative practices he inherited from the kings of Susa and Anshan. They discuss the Elamite kingdom of Anshan, where Cyrus's ancestors ruled as vassals; the Elamite deities like Napirisha and Inshushinak that lingered in Persian religion; and the clay tablet archives…
Cyrus the Great and the Persian Siege of Babylon: The River That Changed History
In this episode, Lucas and Luna dive into the most audacious military maneuver of Cyrus the Great's career: the diversion of the Euphrates River to enter Babylon. Drawing on the Nabonidus Chronicle, Herodotus, and the Cyrus Cylinder, they unpack how Persian engineers lowered the river's level by digging canals and redirecting its flow, allowing troops to march along the dry riverbed under the city's impregnable walls. They explore the strategic preparation—including the placement of Persian…
Cyrus the Great and the Royal Hunt: Sport, Power, and Empire
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the significance of the royal hunt in the Achaemenid Persian Empire. They discuss how Cyrus the Great and later kings used hunting not just as sport but as a display of power, military training, and political theater. Drawing on evidence from Persepolis reliefs, Xenophon's Cyropaedia, and Greek historians, they examine the symbolism of the king as hunter, the role of the royal parks (paradeisos), and how the hunt reinforced the king's authority over…
Cyrus the Great's Egyptian Campaign The Conquest That Never Was
In this episode of The Persian Empire, Lucas and Luna explore a little-known chapter of Cyrus the Great's career: his planned invasion of Egypt. Did Cyrus really set his sights on the Nile? We examine the evidence from Herodotus, the Cyrus Cylinder, and the Babylonian chronicles, and consider the geopolitical situation in 530 BCE. Egypt was the last independent great power in the Near East, ruled by the Pharaoh Amasis, a cunning diplomat who had allied with Croesus of Lydia and Polycrates of…
Cyrus the Great and the Euphrates River: How Persia Tamed a River
In this episode of The Persian Empire, Lucas and Luna explore how the Achaemenid Empire harnessed the Euphrates River—not just for conquest, but for irrigation, transport, and symbolic power. They cover the river's role in the fall of Babylon (539 BCE), where Cyrus's engineers diverted its waters to enter the city via the riverbed. They discuss the qanat system, a Persian innovation that channeled groundwater across arid lands, and how the Euphrates became a lifeline for the imperial heartland.…
Cyrus the Great's Imperial Couriers: The Chaparkhaneh Network
Before the Pony Express, before the Mongol Yam, there was the Achaemenid chaparkhaneh — the world's first long-distance relay courier system. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore how Cyrus the Great and his successors built a network of mounted messengers and way stations that could carry a royal decree from Susa to Sardis in seven days. They discuss the riding stations (chaparkhaneh), the relay riders (pirradazish), the role of Aramaic as the imperial administrative language, and how the…
The Persian Satrapies: Cyrus's Blueprint for Empire
Lucas and Luna explore Cyrus the Great's most enduring innovation: the satrapy system. They discuss how Cyrus divided the sprawling Achaemenid Empire into twenty provinces, each governed by a satrap accountable to the king. The episode covers the administrative structure—how local laws and customs were preserved under Persian oversight—and the checks and balances that prevented rebellion. Lucas explains the role of the 'king's secretaries' and military commanders who shadowed each satrap, and…
Cyrus the Great and the Persian Royal Road
Before the Romans built their roads, the Persians built the Royal Road. Stretching from Susa to Sardis, this 1,600-mile highway was the nervous system of the Achaemenid Empire. Lucas and Luna explore how Cyrus the Great and his successors used the road to bind together a vast multicultural empire. They discuss the system of relay stations (Chaparkhaneh), the speed of the royal messengers—Herodotus claimed they could cover 1,500 miles in nine days—and the logistical brilliance of keeping the…
Cyrus the Great's Carians: The Mercenaries Who Shaped an Empire
When Cyrus the Great conquered Lydia in 547 BCE, he didn't just gain gold—he gained the Carians, a fierce Anatolian people who became the Achaemenid Empire's most sought-after mercenaries. This episode traces how these 'bronze-armored' warriors from the mountains of Caria served Persian kings from Cyrus to Darius, wielding their signature crescent shields and long swords in campaigns from Egypt to the Indus. We explore their unique culture, their famed queens like Artemisia I of Halicarnassus…
Cyrus the Great and the Persian Law Code That United an Empire
Lucas and Luna explore the Achaemenid legal system under Cyrus the Great — a sophisticated framework of royal decrees, local customs, and professional judges that held the first superpower together. Drawing on the Cyrus Cylinder, the Behistun Inscription, Old Persian inscriptions from Persepolis, and the Book of Ezra, Lucas reveals how Persian law blended imperial authority with local autonomy. Terms like dātam (royal law), šaršam (customary law), and the 'judges of the provinces' come to life…
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