Episodes
Genghis Khan's Successors: The Yassa and the Pax Mongolica
We often hear about Genghis Khan as a singular conqueror, but his true genius lay in the systems he built to hold together the largest contiguous land empire in history. This episode moves beyond the battlefield to examine the Yassa, the secret legal code that governed life from the Pacific Ocean to Eastern Europe. Lucas and Luna explore how this rigid framework of discipline, religious tolerance, and meritocracy transformed chaotic nomadic tribes into an administrative superpower. We look at…
The Three Pillars of Global Power: Akbar, Suleiman, Louis XIV
We often group the great empires of the early modern world together, but how did rulers in Delhi, Istanbul, and Versailles actually wield power? In this episode, we move beyond the general labels of 'Gunpowder Empires' to examine the specific mechanics of governance that defined three distinct reigns. We look at Akbar the Great's creation of the Mansabdari system, which tied military service directly to land revenue rather than hereditary nobility, effectively centralizing authority in a way…
The Four Empires That Shaped the Modern World
We often hear about the 'Gunpowder Empires' of the Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals, but comparing them to Europe’s rising absolute monarchies reveals a deeper story about how power was constructed. This episode moves beyond the familiar trio of Akbar, Suleiman, and Louis XIV to explore why these four states dominated their respective regions in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. We look at the specific administrative mechanisms that allowed rulers like Elizabeth I and Philip II to project…
The Three Pillars of Global Power: Akbar, Suleiman, Louis XIV
In this episode, we compare three rulers who defined the early modern world through vastly different methods of consolidation and expansion. We look at how Akbar the Great built a multi-ethnic empire in India through religious tolerance and administrative reform, contrasting his Sulh-i-kul policy with the centralized legal code of Suleiman the Magnificent in the Ottoman Empire. We then examine how Louis XIV of France projected absolute power through cultural hegemony and the rigid court…
The Unlikely Alliance: How Timur and Akbar Defined Power
We often think of empire-building as a solitary pursuit, but some of history’s most enduring dynasties were forged through unexpected alliances and calculated marriages. In this episode, we look at two pivotal moments that shaped the Islamic world: the Treaty of Amasya between the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia, and the strategic marital politics of the Mughal Empire under Akbar. We explore how Suleiman the Magnificent and Shah Tahmasp I carved up the Middle East to focus on their respective…
Three Emperors, One Golden Age: Akbar, Suleiman, Louis XIV
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna compare three giants of early modern statecraft: Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great, Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, and French King Louis XIV. While often studied in isolation, these rulers operated within a narrow window of fifty years, each building vast empires through distinct philosophies of power. We examine how Akbar’s policy of Sulh-i-kul sought to unify India’s diverse religious landscape, contrasting it with Suleiman’s…
The Three Emperors Who Shaped the Modern World
We often rank history’s greatest rulers by territory conquered or wealth amassed, but true power is harder to measure. In this episode, we compare three emperors from vastly different corners of the globe who redefined sovereignty in the early modern period: Akbar the Great of the Mughal Empire, Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire, and Louis XIV of France. While Akbar built a state on religious tolerance and administrative innovation, Suleiman codified law and expanded imperial…
The Silk Road Empires: Trade, War, and the Yassa
This episode explores the logistical backbone of the Mongol Empire, moving beyond the battlefield to examine how Genghis Khan and his successors maintained control over Eurasia. We look at the Yam courier system, a relay network that allowed messages to travel thousands of miles in days, and the Pax Mongolica, which made trade safer than ever before. Lucas and Luna discuss the legal code known as the Yassa, its role in enforcing discipline among nomadic tribes, and how it balanced traditional…
Ashoka the Great: From Conqueror to Compassion
This episode explores the dramatic transformation of Ashoka Maurya, the third emperor of the Mauryan Empire in ancient India. Once known as Chandashoka, or Ashoka the Cruel, he ruled through military might until the bloody Battle of Kalinga in 261 BCE changed his life forever. Witness how the staggering death toll of that conflict led Ashoka to embrace Buddhism and adopt the Dhamma, a code of ethical governance that reshaped his administration. We examine the Rock Edicts scattered across his…
Catherine the Great's Secret Correspondence with Voltaire
While Episode 219 explored Catherine II’s political reforms and the Pugachev Rebellion, this episode peels back the curtain on her intellectual armor. We examine how Catherine cultivated a secret correspondence with Voltaire and Diderot to legitimize her rule in the eyes of Europe. Through letters from Fontainebleau and the Hermitage, she crafted the image of the 'Enlightened Despot' while simultaneously tightening serfdom at home. Lucas traces the evolution of her 'Nakaz' legal code, revealing…
How Genghis Khan Built a Global Network
While previous episodes have explored the laws of the Yassa or the battles of Ankara, this episode examines the logistical engine that allowed the Mongol Empire to stretch from Korea to Hungary. We look at the Yam, the state-run relay system that carried messages at speeds no other civilization could match. Lucas and Luna discuss how this network enabled intelligence gathering, trade protection, and rapid military response across thousands of miles. We explore the roles of the örööchi courier…
Suleiman's Shadow: The Tragic Execution of Prince Mustafa
In Episode 223, Lucas and Luna explore the dark underbelly of Suleiman the Magnificent’s reign, focusing on the execution of his eldest son, Prince Mustafa. While Suleiman is remembered as Kanuni, the Lawgiver, his personal life was marked by intense political maneuvering and familial tragedy. We examine how Hürrem Sultan’s influence, the growing power of the Janissaries, and the paranoia of an aging sultan led to the poisoning of Mustafa in 1553. This episode contrasts the public image of…
How Hatshepsut Became Egypt's Most Successful Female Pharaoh
We trace the rise of Hatshepsut, who ruled Egypt as pharaoh for over two decades during the 18th Dynasty. After her stepson Thutmose III was placed on the throne as a child, she assumed the full regalia of kingship, including the false beard and shendyt kilt, to legitimize her rule through divine birth narratives. We explore her ambitious building projects at Deir el-Bahari, the massive obelisks she erected at Karnak, and the thriving trade expedition to Punt that brought back myrrh trees and…
Augustus Caesar's First Principles of Power
While previous episodes have explored the military conquests of Genghis Khan and the administrative genius of Ashoka, this episode turns to the Roman Empire’s most enduring architect: Augustus Caesar. We examine how Octavian transformed a lifetime of civil war into the Pax Romana through subtle political theater rather than brute force alone. The conversation details his carefully constructed titles, including Princeps and Pater Patriae, and his strategic retreat from the throne to preserve the…
Suleiman the Magnificent: Lawgiver and Architect of Ottoman Power
While his Western contemporaries were often defined by religious wars or dynastic intrigue, Suleiman I of the Ottoman Empire carved a legacy through codified law and architectural grandeur. This episode explores how Suleiman earned the title Kanuni, or Lawgiver, by reforming the Ottoman legal system to balance Sharia with secular kanun codes. We examine his relationship with his Grand Vizier, Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha, whose rise and tragic fall reveal the precarious nature of power in…
Catherine the Great and the Enlightenment Paradox
In this episode of Fexingo History, we explore the complex reign of Catherine II of Russia, known as Catherine the Great. While she cultivated an image as a benevolent Enlightened Despot corresponding with Voltaire and Diderot, her actual rule was defined by brutal suppression of dissent, notably the Pugachev Rebellion. We examine how she expanded the Russian Empire to the Black Sea through wars against the Ottoman Empire, reshaping Eastern European geopolitics. The conversation delves into her…
Rani Durgavati's Last Stand: Gond Queen vs Mughal Empire
In 1564, a queen of the Gond people led her cavalry against the Mughal war machine. Rani Durgavati, ruler of Garha-Katanga, had inherited a kingdom of forts, elephants, and trade routes. But when Akbar's general Asaf Khan marched south, she chose to fight rather than submit. This episode unpacks her rise to power, her strategic brilliance at the Battle of Narrai, and the brutal end that turned her into a legend. We look at the Ain-i-Akbari's account, the role of her Gond commanders, and how her…
The Peacock Throne's Journey: From Shah Jahan to Nader Shah
In this episode, Lucas and Luna trace the extraordinary journey of the Peacock Throne, from its creation under Shah Jahan in the 17th century to its disappearance after Nader Shah's sack of Delhi in 1739. They explore the throne's opulent design—its gold, jewels, and the famous Koh-i-Noor diamond—and what it symbolized for the Mughal Empire. The conversation covers the craftsmanship, the court culture that produced it, and the geopolitical shifts that led to its loss. Along the way, they…
The Battle of Panipat: Babur's Gunpowder Gambit
In 1526, a Central Asian prince with a small army and a handful of cannons shattered the Delhi Sultanate and founded the Mughal Empire. This episode follows Babur's journey from the Fergana Valley to the plains of Panipat, where he faced Ibrahim Lodi's massive force. We explore the tactical innovations—the Ottoman-style gun carts, the matchlock muskets, and the use of the gabion—that turned the tide against a much larger enemy. We also examine the political landscape of northern India, the…
The Iron Crown of Lombardy: A Thousand Years of Power
Lucas and Luna step back from the battlefields and court intrigues to trace a single object through a millennium of European history: the Iron Crown of Lombardy. Housed in Monza Cathedral, this small golden diadem with a legendary iron band has crowned Charlemagne, Otto the Great, and Napoleon Bonaparte. They unpack the crown's uncertain origins — was it really forged from a nail of the True Cross? — and its role in legitimizing rulers from the Lombard Queen Theodelinda to the Holy Roman…
The Iron Cage of Timur: A Sultan's Humiliation
In 1402, at the Battle of Ankara, the armies of Timur the Lame crushed the Ottoman forces of Sultan Bayezid I. But the aftermath was stranger and more brutal than the battle itself. Legend says Bayezid was carried about in a cage, displayed like a trophy. In this episode, hosts Lucas and Luna untangle the facts from the myth. They trace the battle's course, the clash of two ambitious empires, and the stories that grew around Bayezid's imprisonment. They examine what Timur actually did with his…
The Peacock Throne: Shah Jahan's Jeweled Seat of Power
In the twilight of the Mughal Empire, Shah Jahan, the builder of the Taj Mahal, commissioned a throne unlike any other. Encrusted with rubies, emeralds, and diamonds, the Takht-e-Taus, or Peacock Throne, was more than a seat of power—it was a statement of cosmic authority. Crafted over seven years by master jewelers, it featured a golden canopy with two life-sized peacocks encrusted with gems, and a staircase of solid gold. This episode traces the throne's creation, its role in Mughal court…
The White Huns: Hephthalites, the Empire That Broke Persia
Before the Turks and Mongols, a shadowy power ruled Central Asia and terrorized the great empires of Persia and India: the Hephthalites, or White Huns. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the rise of a nomadic confederation that toppled the Kushans, bled the Sasanian Empire dry, and humbled the Gupta kings. We trace their origins from the steppes, follow their enigmatic king Toramana and his son Mihirakula, and look at how their legacy echoes in the tales of the Persian epic Shahnameh and…
Akbar's Nine Gems: The Minds Behind the Mughal Renaissance
Emperor Akbar ruled the Mughal Empire at its zenith, but behind the throne stood a remarkable circle of nine extraordinary advisors known as the Navaratnas, or Nine Gems. This episode zooms in on these brilliant minds who shaped Akbar's policies, from his visionary finance minister Todar Mal, who overhauled the tax system, to the poet-surgeon Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan and the philosopher Abul Fazl, chronicler of the empire. We explore how Birbal's wit and wisdom influenced court culture, how…
Talas: The Battle That Stopped Tang Expansion
In 751 CE, two great empires collided on the banks of the Talas River in modern Kyrgyzstan. The Abbasid Caliphate and the Tang Dynasty of China fought a brutal battle that would determine the fate of Central Asia. But was it really about papermaking, as legend suggests? This episode digs into the real story: the politics of the Sogdian city-states, the betrayal of the Karluk mercenaries, and the ambitions of generals like Gao Xianzhi and Abu Muslim. We explore what the battle actually…
The Battle of Talas: How the Abbasids Stopped Tang Expansion
In 751 CE, two of the world's greatest empires clashed on the banks of the Talas River in Central Asia. The Abbasid Caliphate, under the young governor Abu Muslim, faced the armies of the Tang Dynasty, led by the Korean general Gao Xianzhi. It was a battle that would decide the fate of the Silk Road and the spread of papermaking technology to the West. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the lead-up to the conflict, the pivotal role of the Karluk mercenaries who switched sides, and the…
The Iron Cage: Timur's Humiliation of Bayezid
In 1402, Timur Lenk, the Turco-Mongol conqueror from Samarkand, met Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I at the Battle of Ankara. The clash would reshape the Middle East, toppling the Ottomans into a decade-long civil war known as the Interregnum. This episode unpacks the legends and the gritty realities: Was Bayezid truly paraded in an iron cage? How did Timur's strategic genius—using scorched earth, water diversion, and a vast coalition—outmaneuver the sultan's exhausted army? We explore the aftermath…
Tamerlane's Chessboard: The Battle of Ankara and the Ottoman Interregnum
In 1402, at the Battle of Ankara, Tamerlane crushed the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I, capturing him and plunging the young Ottoman state into a decade-long civil war known as the Interregnum. This episode peels back the layers of that pivotal clash: the strategic chess match between two of the era's greatest conquerors, the role of the Timurid war elephants, and the betrayal of Bayezid's Tatar and Serbian vassals on the battlefield. We follow the aftermath as Bayezid's sons fought for the throne…
Rani Durgavati: The Queen Who Defied Akbar
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the life of Rani Durgavati, the Gond queen of Garha-Katanga in 16th-century India. Born a Rajput princess, she married into the Gond dynasty and became a skilled administrator and warrior after her husband's death. Ruling from Chauragarh fort, she defended her kingdom against the expanding Mughal Empire under Akbar. Her final battle against the Mughal general Asaf Khan in 1564 ended in defeat and her suicide, cementing her legacy as a symbol of…
Akbar's Dream: The Din-i-Ilahi and Mughal Religious Harmony
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the religious experiments of the Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great. In the late 1500s, Akbar, a Muslim ruler over a largely Hindu India, convened the Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri, where Sunni, Shia, Sufi, Hindu, Jain, and even Jesuit scholars debated theology. From this melting pot, Akbar forged the Din-i-Ilahi, a syncretic cult that blended Islamic, Hindu, Zoroastrian, and Christian elements, with Akbar himself as a spiritual guide. The conversation dives…
Genghis Khan's Yassa: The Secret Law Code of the Steppe
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the fabled Yassa, the legal code attributed to Genghis Khan. Was it a written law, a collection of sayings, or a myth? They sift through Persian and Chinese sources, from Juvayni to the Secret History, to uncover what we actually know about the Great Khan's laws: the ban on washing in running water, the institution of the postal relay system (yam), the tax exemptions for clerics, and the brutal punishments that may have kept the Mongol Empire running.…
Ashoka's Pillars: Inscriptions That Tamed an Empire
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the pillar edicts of Ashoka, the Mauryan emperor who renounced conquest after the bloody Kalinga War. They trace the pillars from their quarrying at Chunar to their erection across the subcontinent, examining the Prakrit inscriptions in Brahmi script that carried his message of dhamma. Along the way, they unpack the legend of Ashoka's conversion by the monk Nigrodha, the role of the Mahamattas as his moral enforcers, and the haunting question of Kalinga's…
The Library of Ashurbanipal: Nineveh's Lost Wisdom
This episode digs into the clay tablets of Ashurbanipal's great library at Nineveh — the Assyrian king who amassed over 30,000 texts, from epic poetry to omen lists, and accidentally preserved Mesopotamian culture for us. We talk about how the library was built, the scribes who copied and catalogued, the famous flood story that parallels the Bible, and the brutal sack of Nineveh in 612 BCE that buried the tablets until the 19th century. Lucas and Luna also explore Ashurbanipal's scholarly side…
Kanishka's White Elephant: The Shunga Dynasty's Buddhist Persecution
In this episode, Lucas and Luna tackle a shadowy corner of Indian history: the Shunga dynasty's alleged persecution of Buddhists. Did Pushyamitra Shunga, the general who toppled the Mauryans, really unleash a wave of violence against monks and monasteries? Lucas digs into the sources — the Divyavadana, the Ashokavadana, the often-quoted but historically shaky Taranatha — and contrasts them with the archaeological record from Bharhut and Sanchi stuppas, which show flourishing Buddhist patronage…
The Crown of the Steppe: Genghis Khan's Succession
In this 200th episode of The Most Powerful Rulers, Lucas and Luna explore the often-overlooked succession crisis that followed Genghis Khan's death in 1227. How did the greatest conqueror in history fail to name a clear heir, and what did that mean for the empire he built? They trace the rise of Ögedei Khan, the elective kurultai, and the fracturing of the Mongol Empire into four khanates. Along the way, they discuss the mysterious yesugei, the secret history of the Mongols, and the fate of the…
Kanishka's White Elephant: The Legend of Pushyamitra's Persecution
In this episode, Lucas and Luna delve into the shadowy history of Pushyamitra Shunga, the general who toppled the Mauryan Empire and sparked a brutal backlash against Buddhism. They explore the archaeological evidence from the Divyavadana and the Ashokavadana, contrasting the legendary persecution with recent scholarship that questions its scale. Along the way, they examine the Shunga dynasty's art at Bharhut and Sanchi, the decline of the Silk Road trade under their rule, and how this…
Kanishka's Silk Road: The Kushan Empire's Lost Legacy
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the reign of Kanishka I, the Kushan emperor who ruled a vast Silk Road empire from Peshawar in the second century CE. We trace the Kushans' rise from nomadic Yuezhi roots, examine Kanishka's military campaigns in Central Asia and India, and uncover how his patronage transformed Buddhism—sponsoring the Fourth Buddhist Council and commissioning the monumental Kanishka Stupa. We also dive into his coinage, which boldly mixed Greek, Persian, Indian, and even…
Kanishka's Coinage: The Kushan Emperor Who Minted a Bridge Between Worlds
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the extraordinary coinage of Kanishka I, the Kushan emperor who ruled over a vast Central Asian and Indian empire at the start of the second century CE. They examine how his coins, struck in gold and bronze, served as propaganda, economic policy, and cultural synthesis. Lucas reveals the eclectic pantheon Kanishka chose to depict — from Greek deities like Helios and Heracles to Zoroastrian figures like Mithra and Anahita, and finally the Buddha, whose…
Kanishka's Gold: The Kushan Empire's Forgotten Glory
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the reign of Kanishka I, the most powerful ruler of the Kushan Empire, whose domain stretched from the Ganges to the Oxus in the 2nd century CE. They unpack the Rabatak Inscription, which reveals his divine claims and military conquests, and discuss how Kanishka's patronage of Mahayana Buddhism and his empire's role in Silk Road trade made the Kushans a cultural and economic bridge between Rome, Persia, and China. The conversation touches on the Fourth…
The Forgotten Emperor: Kanishka and the Kushan Empire
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the Kushan Empire, one of history's most powerful but least remembered realms. They focus on Emperor Kanishka I, who ruled a vast territory stretching from the Ganges to the Caspian Sea in the 2nd century CE. Discover how Kanishka's patronage of Buddhism, his role in the Fourth Buddhist Council, and his strategic location on the Silk Road made him a pivotal figure in connecting East and West. Learn about the enigmatic Rabatak Inscription, which reveals…
Suleiman the Magnificent: The Lawgiver's Hidden Reforms
In this episode, Lucas and Luna step away from the battlefield to explore Suleiman the Magnificent's quieter revolution: the kanun, a secular legal code that rebalanced justice across the Ottoman Empire. From the 'Law of Brotherly Fraternity' that legalized fratricide to the trial of his own son-in-law for corruption, Suleiman's reforms turned the sultan from conqueror to legislator. We'll trace how these laws drew on Islamic sharia and Roman precedent, how they were enforced from Baghdad to…
Mansa Musa's Gold: The Hajj That Shook Cairo's Economy
In 1324, Mansa Musa of Mali set out on a pilgrimage to Mecca with a caravan so vast it reportedly included 60,000 men and 80 camels each carrying 300 pounds of gold. His spending in Cairo was so lavish that the value of gold collapsed in the region for over a decade, leaving an economic scar that chroniclers like al-Umari and Ibn Battuta recorded years later. But beyond the legendary glitter, Musa's hajj was a strategic display of power, faith, and diplomacy that connected West Africa to the…
The Golden Throne of Mali: Mansa Musa's Reign of Wealth
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the extraordinary reign of Mansa Musa, the 14th-century emperor of Mali whose wealth and piety reshaped the medieval world. They begin with his famous 1324 hajj to Mecca, where his lavish spending in Cairo reportedly caused a decade-long gold inflation. The conversation then turns to the sources of his fortune — the vast goldfields of Bambuk and Boure, and the trans-Saharan trade networks that connected West Africa to the Mediterranean. They discuss how…
The Aztec Flower Wars: Ritual Combat or Propaganda?
The Aztec flower wars are often depicted as blood-soaked rituals feeding the sun god, but the reality is far more complex. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the political genius behind these staged battles. From the Treaty of 1454 between Tenochtitlan and the Triple Alliance, to the ceremonial battlegrounds of the Panehualiztli festival, we see how the Mexica turned ritual combat into a tool of imperial control. Learn about the xochiyaoyotl, the warriors who fought for prisoners rather…
The Forgotten Queen Hatshepsut's Trade Empire
In this episode, Lucas and Luna step back from the conquerors and lawgivers to explore a different kind of power: the trading empire of pharaoh Hatshepsut. They follow her audacious expedition to the Land of Punt, where Egyptian ships returned with myrrh trees, frankincense, and gold. Lucas explains how Hatshepsut, a woman who ruled as king, used trade to cement her legitimacy, building the Red Chapel at Karnak and commissioning the famous reliefs at Deir el-Bahri that still show the marvels of…
Augustus and the Roman Grain Supply
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore how Augustus Caesar transformed the Roman grain supply, turning a chronic source of instability into a cornerstone of imperial authority. They trace the journey of grain from the fields of Egypt and North Africa to the mouths of Rome's citizens, via the massive state-run infrastructure of the annona, the imperial fleet, and the hulking warehouses of Portus at Ostia. Along the way, they meet the praefectus annonae, the officials who managed this vast…
The Nika Riots: Justinian's Empire Nearly Fell
In January 532, Constantinople erupted. Chariot racing factions—the Blues and the Greens—set aside their rivalry and united against Emperor Justinian. For five days, the city burned, a rival emperor was crowned, and the throne of the Byzantine Empire teetered on the edge of collapse. In this episode, Lucas and Luna dive into the Nika Riots, the most explosive uprising of Justinian's reign. They trace how a chariot race turned into a political revolution, how Justinian's own ministers fanned the…
Charlemagne's Classroom: The Emperor Who Made Latin Legible
When we talk about the Renaissance, we usually mean 15th-century Florence. But three centuries earlier, the Frankish emperor Charlemagne sparked a revival of learning that quite literally reshaped the written word. This episode focuses on Charlemagne's Palace School at Aachen, his recruitment of scholars like Alcuin of York, and the invention of Carolingian minuscule — the clear, rounded script that became the standard for copying classical texts and eventually evolved into our modern lowercase…
Wu Zetian: The Only Female Emperor of China's Tang Dynasty
Wu Zetian, the only woman in Chinese history to rule as emperor in her own right, rose from a concubine in Emperor Taizong's harem to become the de facto ruler of the Tang dynasty. Lucas and Luna explore her ruthless path to power, including her use of secret police, the execution of rivals, and her establishment of the Zhou dynasty. They discuss her promotion of Buddhism, the expansion of the civil service exams, and her military campaigns against Korea and Tibet. Comparisons are drawn to…
Mansa Musa: The Golden Emperor of Mali
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the reign of Mansa Musa, the 14th-century ruler of the Mali Empire whose legendary wealth and pilgrimage to Mecca reshaped the Islamic world and brought Timbuktu to global prominence. They discuss his background, his famous 1324 hajj that caused inflation in Cairo, his massive building projects including the Sankore Madrasah, and the sources by al-Umari and Ibn Battuta that document his empire. The conversation also touches on the factors behind Mali's…
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