Episodes
The Mongol Empire's Spies: How Intelligence Shaped the Invasion of Europe
In this episode, Lucas and Luna look behind the arrows and cavalry charges to uncover the Mongol intelligence machine that made the 1241 invasion of Europe possible. From the yam relay system to the network of merchants and envoys who doubled as spies, we trace how Batu Khan and Subutai knew Europe's rivers, castles, and political fractures before a single tumen crossed the Carpathians. We examine the role of the yassa in regulating intelligence, the use of coded messages, and the controversial…
The Mongol Empire's Western Edge: Kadan in Croatia
In 1242, as the Mongol army withdrew from Hungary, one general—Kadan—pushed deeper into Europe than almost any other. This episode follows his lightning campaign through Croatia and Dalmatia, chasing King Béla IV to the Adriatic coast. We look at the siege of Zagreb, the flight to Trogir, and the dramatic moment when Kadan turned back at the sea. Along the way we meet Thomas of Split, whose chronicle gives us a rare eyewitness account, and we ask what this final thrust tells us about Mongol…
The Mongol Raids That Reached Vienna: 1242 Frontier
In 1241, while the main Mongol army crushed Hungary at the Sajó River, a small detachment under Kadan and Baidar swept through Poland and headed toward the imperial city of Vienna. This episode zooms in on that westernmost reach of the Mongol invasion—the raids into Austria and the Near East frontier. We talk about the burning of Wiener Neustadt, the skirmishes near the Leitha River, and how the death of Ögedei Khan in faraway Karakorum called Batu Khan back, leaving Central Europe intact. We…
The Last Stand at Sajó River: A Deeper Look at the 1241 Battle
In this episode, Lucas and Luna revisit the pivotal Battle of Mohi on the Sajó River in 1241, where Batu Khan and Subutai crushed the Hungarian forces of King Béla IV. They explore the tactical genius behind the Mongol victory, the brutal aftermath, and the long-term consequences for Central Europe. The conversation touches on the feigned retreats, the bridge at Sajó, the role of the Cumans, and the controversial decision by Batu to withdraw from Hungary in 1242. Along the way, they reflect on…
The Great Stand on the Vistula: Poland 1241
In the winter of 1240–41, Mongol armies under Batu Khan crossed the frozen Vistula and fell on Poland like a storm. This episode follows the invasion from its opening moves — the fall of Sandomierz, the panic in Kraków, the flight of King Bolesław V — to the climactic field of Legnica, where Duke Henryk Pobożny made his stand against a Mongol force under Baidar and Kadan. We trace how the Mongols used feigned flight and arrow storms to shatter the Polish knights, how Henry's death and the loss…
The Mongol Siege of Esztergom: A Capital Reduced to Ash
In the winter of 1241, as Batu Khan's tumens swept through Hungary, one city stood as the kingdom's symbolic heart: Esztergom. Seat of the archbishop, home to the royal mint, and guardian of the crown jewels, Esztergom was where Béla IV had gathered his court and his treasure. When the Mongols arrived, they demanded surrender, but the defenders refused. What followed was a brutal siege that ended with the city in flames, its fortifications breached, its population scattered or enslaved. This…
The Great Stand on the Vistula 1241
In 1241, as the Mongol tumens swept through Poland, one Polish duke stood his ground at the Battle of Chmielnik — and lost. But his resistance, along with the desperate defense of Kraków and the Silesian capital Wrocław, set the stage for the legendary Battle of Legnica. This episode follows the Mongol invasion of Poland: the sack of Sandomierz, the panic in Kraków, the defeat of Duke Bolesław V the Chaste, and the tragic end of Henry the Pious at Legnica. We explore the role of the Templar and…
The Mongol Withdrawal from Europe: Why They Left Hungary
In this milestone episode 200, Lucas and Luna explore the great historical puzzle of 1242: why did the Mongol Empire, at the height of its power, abruptly withdraw from Hungary just as it seemed poised to sweep deeper into Western Europe? They dissect the competing theories—from the death of Ögedei Khan in Karakorum to the ecological limits of the steppe, the logistic strain, and the resilience of Hungarian resistance. Along the way, they revisit the fateful winter campaign across the frozen…
The Mongol Interpreter Who Spoke for Two Worlds
In 1245, a Franciscan friar named John of Plano Carpini walked 3,000 miles from the Pope's court in Lyon to the Mongol capital of Karakorum. He met the newly crowned Great Khan Güyük, delivered a letter that demanded the Mongols convert to Christianity, and returned with a reply that ordered the Pope to submit. On the way, he crossed the Carpathian passes, survived a steppe winter, and recorded everything he saw. This episode follows Carpini's journey as told in his own words in the Historia…
The Mongol Withdrawal from Hungary 1242
Why did the Mongols, after crushing Hungary's army at Mohi and occupying the country through the brutal winter of 1241–42, simply turn around and leave? In this episode, Lucas and Luna probe the great unanswered question of the Mongol invasion of Europe. They examine the competing explanations — the political crisis in Karakorum after Ögedei Khan's death, the logistics of feeding an army on a depleted plain, the resilience of Béla IV's resistance, and the sheer distance from the Mongol…
The Mongol Khan's Failed Siege of Nanjing
In 1236, as the Mongol Empire tightened its grip on northern China, the great khan Ögedei turned his attention to the Southern Song. The resulting siege of Nanjing — then called Jiankang — became a rare Mongol failure. This episode digs into the clash between steppe cavalry and a city defended by rivers, walls, and the Yangtze fleet. We talk about the Song general Meng Gong, who beat the Mongols back at the river fortress of Jiangling; the siege engines the Mongols brought up the Yangtze; and…
The Mongol Siege of Esztergom: Hungary's Royal City
In 1241, as the Mongol army swept through Hungary, one city stood above all others in strategic and symbolic importance: Esztergom, the seat of the Hungarian king and the archbishop. In this episode, Lucas and Luna look at the Mongol siege of Esztergom that followed the Battle of Mohi, the city's formidable stone walls, the treasury that lured the invaders, and the desperate flight of its citizens. We examine the tactical challenges the Mongols faced in taking a European fortress, the role of…
The Mongol Occupation of Hungary: What Life Was Like Under the Yoke
In 1241, the Mongol Empire didn't just defeat Hungary's army—it occupied the country. But what was it like for the people who survived the Battle of Mohi and suddenly found themselves living under Mongol rule? This episode explores the grim reality of life in Mongol-occupied Hungary, from brutal taxation and forced labor to the resilience of local communities. We examine the fate of the nobles who submitted, the role of the Church in maintaining hope, and the stories of ordinary peasants caught…
Mongol Battle Tactics: Feigned Flight and Arrow Storms
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna dive into the military mechanics that made the Mongol army nearly unstoppable — the feigned retreat, the arrow storm, the composite bow, and the disciplined tumen structure. They explore how these tactics were used against European knights at the Battle of Mohi in 1241, and why they were so devastating. Along the way, they discuss the role of the yam messenger system, the Yassa legal code, and the legendary skills of Subutai and Batu Khan. If…
The Mongol Empire's Postal Riders: How a Horse Relay Shook Europe
Before the Mongols ever crossed the Carpathians, their horses were already running through Europe — in the form of a message. This episode follows the Yam, the Mongol relay system that could move a rider across the entire empire faster than any news traveled in the West. We trace its origins under Genghis Khan, its expansion under Ögedei, and how Batu Khan used it to coordinate the 1241 invasion of Hungary. We look at the stations, the fresh mounts, the paiza passes, and the couriers who…
The Mongol Letter to the Pope: A Clash of Worlds
Episode 192 of Fexingo History explores the 1246 letter from Mongol Great Khan Güyük to Pope Innocent IV — a stunning rejection of papal authority that laid bare the divide between Christian Europe and the steppe empire. We trace how John of Plano Carpini carried the pope's plea to Karakorum, how Güyük's reply framed Mongol conquest as divine will, and why the khan's demand for submission — echoing the Yassa and the Mongol cosmology — was never meant to be a diplomatic opening but a declaration…
The Mongol Siege of Baghdad 1258 A City of Books Reduced to Ash
In 1258, the Mongol army under Hulagu Khan reached the walls of Baghdad, capital of the Abbasid Caliphate and a city of unmatched learning. This episode follows the siege from the earlier campaigns against the Assassins to the final assault, the fall of the caliph al-Musta'sim, and the destruction of the House of Wisdom. What was lost is debated—legend says the Tigris ran black with ink, but recent scholarship questions the scale of the damage. We look at the Mongol siegecraft, the strategic…
The Mongol Logistics Machine That Powered Europe's Invasion
In 1241, Subutai and Batu Khan's armies crossed into Europe with astonishing speed and coordination. But behind the horses and arrows was an unseen engine: a relay system of horse stations, a codified legal code, and a census that turned conquered peoples into fuel. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore how the Mongol war machine's logistics—the yam, the yassa, and the empire's appetite for intelligence—made the invasion of Hungary and Poland possible. They trace the origins of the system…
Moravia 1241 The Mongol Invasion's Forgotten Front
In 1241, while the main Mongol army crushed Hungary at Mohi, a separate force under Kadan and Baidar ravaged Poland and Moravia. This episode focuses on the little-known campaign in Moravia: the Mongol raid through the Moravian Gate, the sack of Opava, and the defensive efforts of King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia. We explore the tactics used by the Bohemian king to protect his kingdom—blocking mountain passes, mustering a feudal army, and the fateful battle that never was at Olomouc. Drawing on…
The Mongol Khan's Letter to the Pope: A Clash of Worlds
In 1245, three years after the Mongol invasion of Europe shattered Hungary and Poland, Pope Innocent IV sent a Franciscan friar named John of Plano Carpini to the Mongol court at Karakorum. His mission: to probe the intentions of the Mongol Empire and possibly convert the Khan. Instead, Carpini returned with a stark letter from Güyük Khan—a blunt ultimatum demanding the Pope's submission to Tengri, the Eternal Heaven. This episode unpacks the full text of that 1246 letter, the political and…
Olomouc 1241 The Mongol Battle That Never Happened
In 1241, while the Mongols ravaged Poland and Hungary, a detachment under Kadan swept into Moravia. Centuries later, Czech chroniclers told of a great victory at Olomouc, where Jaroslav of Šternberk supposedly repelled the invaders. But did it actually happen? This episode examines the evidence—from contemporary annals to 14th-century fabrications—and explores why the myth of Olomouc persists. We trace Kadan's actual route through Opava and Bruntál, weigh the silence of reliable sources like…
The Mongol Invasion of the Balkans 1242 Serbia and Bulgaria
After the Battle of Mohi and the destruction of the Hungarian army, the Mongols pushed deeper into Central Europe. While Kadan chased King Béla IV to the Adriatic coast, other Mongol columns swung south into the Balkans. This episode explores the campaigns into Serbia and Bulgaria in 1242, where local rulers like Stefan Vladislav and the young Bulgarian tsar faced the full force of the Mongol war machine. We examine how Serbia avoided total destruction through submission and tribute, how…
The Cuman Alliance That Broke Hungary 1241
In 1238, King Béla IV of Hungary welcomed tens of thousands of Cuman refugees fleeing the Mongol advance. Led by their chieftain Köten, these nomadic warriors were offered land, baptism, and military service in exchange for loyalty. But the alliance was doomed from the start. Hungarian nobles distrusted the Cumans, and when Mongol spies sowed rumors of a Cuman-Mongol conspiracy, the tensions exploded. In March 1241, as Mongol armies converged on Hungary, a mob stormed the camp of Köten and…
The Mongol Monk Who Met the Kings of Europe
In 1287, a Nestorian monk from China arrived in Paris. His name was Rabban Bar Sauma, and he carried a proposal from the Mongol Ilkhan Arghun: a Franco-Mongol alliance against the Mamluks. This episode traces Bar Sauma's extraordinary journey from Khanbaliq (Beijing) to the courts of Constantinople, Rome, Paris, and Bordeaux, where he met Philip IV of France, Edward I of England, and Pope Nicholas IV. We explore the cultural clashes, the diplomatic intricacies, and the tantalizing near-miss…
The Friar Who Met the Great Khan Carpini's Mission to the Mongols
In the wake of the Mongol invasion of Europe, Pope Innocent IV sent an aging Franciscan friar, John of Plano Carpini, on a perilous journey to the heart of the Mongol Empire. This episode follows Carpini's 1245-1247 mission to the court of Guyuk Khan, his eyewitness account of Mongol customs and military power, and the stunning letter he brought back demanding Europe's submission. We explore what Carpini's 'Historia Mongalorum' revealed, how it shaped European understanding of the Mongols, and…
Mongol Spy Network Inside Europe 1241
Long before Mongol horsemen crossed the Carpathians into Hungary in 1241, their khans already knew the layout of every major fortress, the names of European nobles, and the internal divisions of the kingdom. In this episode of The Mongols vs Europe, Lucas and Luna delve into the sophisticated intelligence apparatus that powered the Mongol invasion: the Yam communication network, merchant-spies, captured prisoners, and defectors like the Cumans. They explore how Batu Khan and Subutai used…
Battle of Mohi 1241 The Mongol Hammer Falls on Hungary
The Battle of Mohi (April 11, 1241) was the decisive clash that broke the Kingdom of Hungary's resistance to the Mongol invasion. Subutai's brilliant tactics — a night crossing of the Sajó River, a feigned retreat, and a pincer movement — annihilated Béla IV's army in a single day. This episode reconstructs the battle from the accounts of Rogerius of Apulia (Carmen Miserabile) and Thomas of Split, examining how the Mongol command structure and intelligence (the Yam) created a crushing victory.…
Batu Khan's Ultimatum to Hungary: The Letter That Doomed a Kingdom
In the winter of 1240, a Mongol envoy delivered a sealed letter to King Béla IV of Hungary. Its contents, preserved in the chronicle of Rogerius of Apulia, reveal Batu Khan's demands for surrender—and the chilling consequences of ignoring them. This episode unpacks the ultimatum's wording, the diplomatic context of Mongol expansion, and the debate over its authenticity. We also explore Hungary's divided response, Béla's refusal to submit, and how that single letter set the stage for the…
The Mongol Pursuit Into Dalmatia How the Adriatic Saved a King
In the winter of 1241-42, King Béla IV of Hungary was a hunted man. After the devastating defeat at Mohi, he fled west through the snow, pursued by Mongol detachments under the general Kadan. His desperate journey took him across Croatia to the Adriatic coast, where he took refuge in the fortified island city of Trogir. There, the sea became his unlikely savior—the Mongols, masters of land warfare, had no ships. This episode follows Béla's flight blow by blow, from the burning of Esztergom to…
The Dominican Who Warned Europe Brother Julian's Mission to the Mongols
Before the Mongol horde swept into Hungary in 1241, a Dominican friar named Brother Julian had already traveled deep into the steppe, met Mongol envoys, and returned with a blunt ultimatum from Batu Khan: submit or be destroyed. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore Julian's extraordinary journey—his search for the lost Hungarian homeland, the letter he brought back from Batu, and how King Béla IV and Europe chose to ignore the warning. Drawing on the firsthand account of the Vita Fratris…
Mongol Siege of Pest 1241 Hungary's Bloody Prelude
In early 1241, before the battles of Mohi and Legnica, the Mongol army under Batu Khan and Subutai crossed the Carpathians into Hungary. Their first major target was the city of Pest, a thriving commercial hub on the eastern bank of the Danube. Unlike the royal seat of Buda across the river, Pest lacked strong stone fortifications. The city's militia and refugees from the countryside attempted a desperate defense, but the Mongols, employing feigned retreats and massed archery, overwhelmed them.…
The Mongol Withdrawal of 1242 Why They Really Left Europe
In 1242, just as Mongol armies seemed poised to overrun Central Europe, they suddenly withdrew. For centuries, historians blamed the death of Ögedei Khan — but new research suggests a more complex story. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the strategic, logistical, and environmental factors that shaped Batu Khan's decision. They discuss the role of the Yam communication system, the devastation of Hungarian pastures, the timing of the kurultai, and the competing interpretations of primary…
How the Mongols Nearly Conquered Central Europe: The 1241 Campaign
In this episode, Lucas and Luna revisit the pivotal Mongol invasion of Europe in 1241, focusing on the twin battles of Legnica and Mohi. They explore why the Mongols, after crushing Polish and Hungarian armies, suddenly withdrew. The discussion covers the strategic genius of Subutai, the role of the Yam communication system, and the controversial death of Ögedei Khan. They also consider what might have happened if the Mongols had pushed further west, examining the fragile state of European…
The Great Khan's Death That Saved Europe 1242
In December 1241, as Batu Khan's Mongol armies swept through Hungary, a messenger arrived with news that would change the course of history: Ögedei Khan, Genghis's son and successor, had died. The Mongol commanders Batu and Subutai faced an impossible choice — continue their campaign into the heart of Europe or return for the kurultai, the great assembly to elect a new khagan. This episode explores those critical weeks after the news broke, the logistics of the Mongol withdrawal, and the fierce…
Mongol Defeat at Marj al-Saffar: The Mamluks' Stand in 1303
Most people know about the Mongols' 1241 invasion of Hungary, but fewer know about their later campaigns into the Middle East and the key battles that stopped them. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the 1303 Battle of Marj al-Saffar, where the Mamluk Sultanate under al-Nasir Muhammad dealt the Ilkhanate a decisive defeat. We examine the leadership of Qutlugh-Shah and Baidu, the role of the Mamluk heavy cavalry, and how the terrain near Damascus shaped the outcome. We also discuss the…
Mongol Siege of Trnava 1242 The Raid That Missed the King
In early 1242, as King Béla IV fled south through Croatia, a Mongol detachment under Kadan swept into the fortified town of Trnava (modern-day Slovakia) looking for him. Drawing on the Continuatio Sancrucensis, the Annals of Trnava, and Rogerius of Apulia's Carmen Miserabile, this episode reconstructs the brief but brutal siege. We explore how Trnava's stone walls and garrison held just long enough for Béla to slip away, why the Mongols bypassed other strongholds, and what the town's survival…
Mongol Siege of Krakow 1241 The City That Burned Twice
In the spring of 1241, while Batu and Subutai were smashing Hungarian armies at Mohi, a separate Mongol column under Baidar and Kadan swept through Poland. Krakow, the medieval capital of the Piast dynasty, was caught in the path of a whirlwind. This episode reconstructs the Mongol attack on Krakow in March 1241, drawing on the Chronicle of Jan Długosz, the Rocznik kapitulny krakowski, and archaeological evidence from the burned layers of Wawel Hill. We follow the desperate defense mounted by…
The Mongol Invasion of Poland 1241: Legnica and Aftermath
In this episode, we dive into the Mongol invasion of Poland in 1241, focusing on the Battle of Legnica and its aftermath. Lucas and Luna explore the roles of Baidar and Kadan, the Mongol commanders who led the campaign, and the fate of Henry II the Pious, Duke of Silesia. They discuss the controversial account of the battle by Jan Długosz, including the alleged use of a 'Polish banner' trick, and the archaeological evidence from Wahlstatt. The episode also covers the Mongol withdrawal from…
The Mongol Siege of Legnica 1241 A Closer Look
In 1241, a Mongol army under Baidar and Kadan swept through Poland, culminating in the devastating Battle of Legnica (Wahlstatt) on April 9, where Duke Henry II the Pious of Silesia was killed and his army annihilated. This episode examines the Polish campaign in detail: the Mongol feigned retreat, the use of smoke screens, the role of the Templars and Teutonic Knights who fought alongside Polish forces, and the aftermath. We explore why Legnica has been overshadowed by the simultaneous Battle…
Europe That Almost Was Mongol Counterfactuals and Contingency
What if the Mongols hadn't withdrawn from Hungary in 1242? In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the counterfactual history of a Mongol-dominated Europe. They examine contingency at the death of Ögedei Khan, the Yam communication system that could have sustained occupation, Mongol administrative models like the Yassa code and tamgha tax, and the long-term cultural and religious integration that might have followed—drawing parallels to the Mongol Yuan dynasty in China. They also discuss the…
How Mongol Siege Engineers Changed European Fortifications
When the Mongols invaded Hungary in 1241-1242, they brought siege technology that European defenders had never seen. Chinese traction trebuchets, Persian incendiary mixtures, and a military engineering corps that could dismantle castle walls in days. After the invasion, King Béla IV launched a massive castle-building program across Hungary, replacing old earth-and-timber forts with stone fortresses designed to withstand Mongol-style assault. But the lessons didn't stop there. European…
The Mongol Siege of Vladimir 1238: A City of Gold
In February 1238, the Mongol army under Batu Khan and Subutai laid siege to Vladimir, the majestic capital of Vladimir-Suzdal. This episode explores the fall of the city's Golden Gates, the fate of Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich's family, and the brutal sack that marked a turning point in the Mongol invasion of Rus'. We examine the archaeological evidence from the Trinity Cathedral, the chronicles of the Nikon and Laurentian codes, and the Mongol use of siege engines and terror tactics. Lucas and…
The Mongol Siege of Baghdad 1258: Hulegu's Conquest
In 1258, the Mongol Empire under Hulegu Khan sacked Baghdad, ending the Abbasid Caliphate that had ruled for over 500 years. This episode explores the siege itself—the engineering, the betrayal, and the aftermath. We examine the role of the Assassins, the Mongol use of Chinese siege experts, and the controversial figure of Ibn al-Alqami, the vizier accused of treachery. We also discuss the destruction of the House of Wisdom and the myth of the Tigris running black with ink. This is a story of…
The Mongol Siege of Otrar 1219 Genghis Khan's Revenge
In this episode, Lucas and Luna dive into the Mongol siege of Otrar in 1219, the opening act of Genghis Khan's invasion of the Khwarezmian Empire. They explore why this city sparked one of history's most brutal campaigns, the role of the governor Inalchuq who executed a Mongol trade caravan, and how the siege unfolded with the defenders holding out for months against overwhelming odds. The conversation covers the archaeological evidence from the site in modern Kazakhstan, the conflicting…
Köten the Cuman Khan Who Fled to Hungary
Before the Mongols invaded Hungary in 1241, a different drama unfolded: the arrival of the Cumans. This episode focuses on Köten, the Cuman chieftain who led tens of thousands of his people into Hungary in 1239, seeking refuge from the advancing Mongol armies. King Béla IV granted them land and baptized their leaders, hoping to use their skilled horsemen as allies. But the sudden influx of nomadic Cumans stirred fear and resentment among Hungarian nobles. Rumors spread that Köten was a Mongol…
The Mongol Empire's Eurasian Integration: Trade, Ideas, and Culture
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore a lesser-known legacy of the Mongol invasions of Europe: how the conquests of Batu Khan and Subutai were part of a broader Mongol project of Eurasian integration. They discuss the Yam communication system, the Pax Mongolica, and the movement of goods, ideas, and people across the Silk Road. Specific focus is given to the role of merchants and engineers from China and Persia who brought gunpowder, siege technology, and administrative practices to the…
The Mongol Siege of Samarkand 1220 A Closer Look
In this episode, Lucas and Luna examine the Mongol siege of Samarkand in 1220, a pivotal event in the Mongol conquest of Central Asia. They discuss the city's formidable walls and garrison, the role of catapults and Greek fire, and the fate of the city's defenders after its fall. The episode also touches on the contrast between the unified Mongol command under Genghis Khan and the fractured resistance of the Khwarezmian Empire, exploring how internal divisions among the defenders contributed to…
The Mongol Siege of Pécs: A Bishop's Stand in 1242
In the winter of 1242, as Mongol tumens swept across Hungary, the fortified city of Pécs became a scene of desperate resistance. This episode examines the siege through the fragmentary records of Bishop Bartholomew of Pécs, the city's strategic role as a treasury and cathedral center, and the archaeological traces that survive. We also consider the controversy over whether the city was taken or held—drawing on the Carmen Miserabile of Rogerius of Apulia as a key source. #MongolSiegeOfPécs…
Mongol Logistics in Hungary: How the Yam Kept Armies Fed
In 1241, the Mongol army under Batu Khan and Subutai swept into Hungary with a speed that terrified Europe. But behind the cavalry charges and siege engines lay a sophisticated logistical system: the Yam, a network of relay stations that moved supplies, messages, and reinforcements across thousands of miles. This episode dives into the practical mechanics of Mongol logistics during the Hungarian campaign — how they managed grazing, foraging, and food supply across the harsh winter. We examine…
The Mongol Siege of Trogir 1242 King Bela's Narrow Escape
In the winter of 1242, as Mongol armies under Kadan swept through Croatia and reached the Adriatic, King Béla IV of Hungary fled to the fortified island city of Trogir. This episode reconstructs the siege that nearly cost Europe one of its last great kings. We examine how Trogir's geography—a walled city on a tiny island between the mainland and the larger island of Čiovo—made it nearly impregnable to Mongol cavalry and siegecraft. Lucas and Luna walk through the key sources: Thomas of Split's…
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