Episodes
The Mongol Army's Secret Weapon: The Nerge Hunting Tactic
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the nerge, the massive encircling hunt practiced by Mongol armies under Genghis Khan and his successors. More than a way to feed troops, the nerge functioned as military training, a tool for intelligence gathering, and a psychological weapon that broke enemy morale before battle. They trace its roots in steppe tradition, its use in campaigns from the Khwarazmian Empire to the invasion of Hungary, and its echoes in modern military doctrine. Along the way…
The Mongol Horse Archers: Masters of the Steppe
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna dive into the heart of Mongol military dominance: the horse archers. From their childhood on the steppe, where they learned to ride before they could walk, to the fearsome composite bow that could outrange European longbows, we explore how these mounted warriors executed lightning-fast hit-and-run tactics. We discuss the famous "Parthian shot," the feigned retreats that lured enemies into deadly traps, and the rigorous training that made every…
Jebe the Arrow: The Mongol General Who Outrode Death
In the aftermath of the Khwarazmian campaign, a single Mongol commander, Jebe, carved a path through the Caucasus that would reshape the fate of Rus'. This episode follows Jebe's legendary ride from the shores of the Caspian to the Kalka River, where he and Subutai outmaneuvered a coalition of Rus' princes. We explore Jebe's origins as a defiant warrior whose arrow pierced Genghis Khan's horse, earning him the name 'Arrow' and a place in the khan's inner circle. We ride with him through the…
The Mongol Army's Meat on the Hoof: Horses and Logistics
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna explore the unsung backbone of the Mongol war machine: the horse. More than just cavalry, the Mongol pony was a mobile pantry, a climate-controlled transport, and a prize of war. They dive into the steppe breeding practices that produced hardy animals able to subsist on grazing alone, the extraordinary endurance of riders who could cover 100 miles a day, and the logistics of moving thousands of horses across hostile terrain. The conversation…
The Mongol War Machine's Hidden Weakness: The Death of a Khan
In Episode 204 of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna explore a crucial but often overlooked aspect of Mongol warfare: the crisis that erupted when the Great Khan died mid-campaign. From the abrupt withdrawal of Batu's forces in 1241 after Ögedei's death, to the succession struggles that rewired the empire's priorities, they trace how one messenger could halt the unstoppable tumens. Along the way, they examine the role of the kurultai, the political maneuvering of Sorkhakhtani, and the fragile…
The Mongol Conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire: Genghis's Wrath
In 1218, a caravan of Mongol merchants was massacred at Otrar, igniting the deadliest campaign of Genghis Khan's life. This episode follows the Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire, a once-mighty realm spanning modern Iran, Central Asia, and Afghanistan. We trace the diplomatic breakdown, Shah Muhammad II's astonishingly bad decisions, Genghis's brutal siege of Bukhara, the flight and death of the shah on an island in the Caspian, and the legendary father-son duel at the Battle of the…
The Mongol Postal System: Riders, Relays, and the Pax Mongolica
In this episode of The Mongol Invasions, Lucas and Luna explore the Yam, the Mongol Empire's extraordinary postal and relay system that connected a continent from the Danube to the Pacific. They trace its origins under Genghis Khan, its expansion under Ögedei, and its operation through stations, horses, and riders. They discuss the role of the jamchi, the paiza passports, and the yam's impact on trade, espionage, and administration. The Yam became the backbone of the Pax Mongolica, enabling…
The Mongol Sack of Merv: A City Erased from the Map
In 1221, the city of Merv—once the jewel of the Silk Road, a center of learning and commerce with a population that rivaled Baghdad—was systematically destroyed by the Mongol army under Tolui, son of Genghis Khan. Drawing on the contemporary chronicle of Ibn al-Athir, who reported that nearly a million people died, this episode peels back the layers of that catastrophe. Were the Mongols truly the unthinking brutes of legend, or was the annihilation of Merv a calculated act of terror designed to…
The Secret Weapon of the Mongol War Machine
Subutai, the greatest of Genghis Khan's generals, was a master of strategy who turned the Mongol tumens into an unstoppable force. In this episode, we follow his most brilliant campaigns — from the reconnaissance rides into the Caucasus to the crushing victory at the Battle of Mohi in 1241, where he outmaneuvered the Hungarian king on the frozen Sajó River. We explore his use of feigned retreat, his ability to coordinate armies across thousands of miles, and how he adapted siege warfare — from…
Mongol Siege Warfare: Engineers of Total Destruction
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the Mongol army's devastating siege capabilities, focusing on the engineering corps that brought down the world's greatest fortifications. From the Han Chinese siege experts who built massive counterweight trebuchets to the Persian and Khwarezmian engineers pressed into service, the Mongols turned captured knowledge into a weapon of terror. We examine the fall of Nishapur in 1221, where Genghis Khan's daughter's vengeance drove a massacre, and the 1258…
The Mongol Liberation of Baghdad's Slaves: A Hidden History
When Hulagu Khan's armies entered Baghdad in 1258, the Mongols did something that shocked the Islamic world: they freed the city's slaves. This episode explores the little-known story of how Mongol conquest disrupted the slave trade across Eurasia, from the markets of Central Asia to the households of the Caliphate. We look at the legal status of slaves under the Yassa, the mass manumissions that followed Mongol victories, and the surprising role of Mongol women in shaping these policies. Lucas…
The Mongol Campaign in Kashmir: A Forgotten Frontier
In this episode, we explore the Mongols' campaign in Kashmir — a mountain kingdom that was neither fully conquered nor entirely ignored. We follow the 13th-century invasions under Ögedei and later Möngke Khan, the role of the summit passes, the region's strategic value as a route to India, and the complex local rulers like the Damara chiefs who deflected Mongol demands. Drawing on Kashmiri chronicles like the Rajatarangini and Mongol accounts, we piece together a story of tribute, raids, and…
The Forgotten Siege of Nishapur: Genghis's Wrath
In 1221, the city of Nishapur in northeastern Iran became the site of one of the Mongol Empire's most brutal and methodical acts of destruction. This episode zooms in on that siege — a punishment campaign triggered by the death of Genghis Khan's son-in-law, Toquchar, and executed by his son Tolui. We explore the city's ancient wealth, its role as a Silk Road hub, the Mongol siege machinery, and the chilling aftermath that left the city a ruin for over a century. We also examine the sources…
The Mongol Raids on Poland: Terror Beyond Legnica
In 1241, two Mongol tumens under Baidar and Kadan swept through Poland and Silesia, burning Kraków and defeating a Christian army at Chmielnik before joining the Battle of Legnica. This episode follows the raids' path, the chaos they caused, and the questions they left behind. Lucas and Luna discuss the role of Duke Henry II the Pious, the mysterious Mongol withdrawal after his death, and the lasting memory of these invasions in Polish chronicles. They also explore the Mongol use of terror as a…
The Mongol Masters of the Spice Road: How Genghis's Heirs Ruled the Caravans
Before the Silk Road became a legend, the Mongols remade it. This episode of Fexingo History follows the rise of the Mongol trade network from the chaos of the 13th century, when Genghis Khan's heirs — first Ögedei, then Möngke and Khubilai — turned a patchwork of hostile routes into a single, guarded highway. We walk the caravanserais of Central Asia, from the ox-cart tracks of the northern steppe to the camel trains of the Taklamakan Desert, and see how Mongol law — the Yassa — protected…
The Mongol Siege of Baghdad 1258: Prologue to a New World Order
In this episode, Lucas and Luna revisit the Mongol campaign against the Abbasid Caliphate, focusing on the years leading up to the 1258 siege. They discuss the strategic planning under Möngke Khan, Hulagu's march from Karakorum, the role of Chinese engineers and siege technology, the internal crises in Baghdad that weakened the Caliph, and the brutal aftermath. The episode highlights the use of trebuchets, the collaboration between Mongol and Persian administrators, and the cultural and…
The Mongol Tumen: Building the Unstoppable War Machine
In Episode 192 of The Mongol Invasions, we step back from the battles to examine the engine behind them: the tumen, the Mongol military unit of ten thousand that was both a tactical and social invention. Lucas and Luna explore how Genghis Khan organized his army into decimal units, the role of the keshik (imperial guard) as a training ground, and how steppe logistics—herds of horses, felt tents, and dried meat—enabled rapid movement across continents. They discuss the crucial mix of steppe…
The Mongol Campaign Against the Tanguts: Genghis Khan's Final War
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the Mongol campaigns against the Tangut people of the Western Xia dynasty, a conflict that marked Genghis Khan's final war before his death in 1227. They discuss the strategic importance of the Tangut kingdom, the reasons for the Mongol invasions under both Genghis and Ögedei, and the brutal siege of the capital, Zhongxing. The episode covers key figures like the Tangut emperor Li Dewang, the Mongol general Subutai, and the mysterious death of Genghis…
The Mongol Yam: How Horse Relays Held an Empire Together
In this episode of The Mongol Invasions, Lucas and Luna explore the Yam — the Mongol Empire's astonishing communication network of horse relay stations. From its invention under Genghis Khan to its expansion under Ögedei, the Yam allowed messages and travelers to cross from the Danube to the Sea of Japan in weeks rather than months. We discuss how the system worked: stations placed every 20-30 miles, fresh horses and riders ready at each stop, and the metal paiza passes that granted travelers…
The Ilkhanate's Conversion: When Mongols Embraced Islam
In 1295, the Mongol Ilkhanate of Persia underwent a seismic shift: its ruler, Ghazan, converted to Islam. This episode explores the motivations behind Ghazan's conversion, the role of his brilliant vizier Rashid al-Din, and the profound impact on Mongol rule in the Middle East. We discuss how the Ilkhanate's adoption of Islam altered its relationship with the Mamluk Sultanate, sparked a cultural renaissance in Persian art and historiography, and set the stage for the eventual dissolution of the…
The Battle of Yamen 1279: The Last Emperor of Song
The Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty took over four decades, culminating in the naval Battle of Yamen in 1279. This episode follows the final years of the Southern Song as loyalist forces led by Zhang Shijie and Wen Tianxiang rallied behind two child emperors. We explore the fall of Xiangyang, the flight of the imperial court, and the desperate naval engagement off the coast of modern-day Guangdong where the last Song emperor, the eight-year-old Zhao Bing, died alongside thousands of his…
The Sack of Baghdad 1258: Hulagu's Wrath
In 1258, Hulagu Khan's Mongol army besieged Baghdad, the heart of the Islamic world. This episode recounts the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate, the role of the vizier Ibn al-Alqami, the caliph al-Musta'sim's hesitation, and the devastating sack that ended the Golden Age. We explore Mongol siege tactics, the use of Chinese engineers, and the legendary treasures lost. Also discussed: the aftermath, including the execution of the caliph and the shift of power to the Ilkhanate. A story of hubris…
Köse Dağ 1243: Mongol Conquest of the Seljuk Sultanate
In 1243, the Mongol general Baiju Noyan led a tumen across the mountains of eastern Anatolia to confront the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum. Sultan Kaykhusraw II, commanding a coalition of feudal lords, Armenian allies, and Frankish mercenaries, met them at the pass of Köse Dağ. What happened next was not a battle of brute force but a masterpiece of psychological warfare — a feigned retreat that shattered the Seljuk army and opened Anatolia to Mongol dominion. This episode walks through the campaign…
The Battle of Legnica 1241: Mongols vs Knights
In 1241, Mongol forces under Baidar and Kadan swept into Poland, meeting Duke Henry II the Pious at Legnica. This episode unpacks the brutal clash, the feigned retreat tactics that shattered European knights, and the death of Henry. We also explore the role of the Templars and Teutonic Knights, and why the Mongol invasion of Poland remains a pivotal but often overlooked chapter of the Western campaign. Learn how the Mongols used speed, deception, and coordination to defeat a larger army, and…
Mongol Conquest of the Assassins: The Fall of Alamut 1256
In 1256, the Mongol Empire under Hulagu Khan turned its sights on a target unlike any other: the Nizari Ismaili state, better known in the West as the Assassins. Perched in mountain fortresses across Persia, the Ismailis had for centuries eluded their enemies through assassination and intrigue. But the Mongols brought a new kind of warfare—total siege, overwhelming numbers, and a political calculation that saw the Assassins as both a nuisance and a strategic threat. This episode tells the story…
The Mongol Invasions of Vietnam: Trần Hưng Đạo's Guerrilla War
In the 13th century, the Mongol Empire under Khubilai Khan turned its attention to Southeast Asia, aiming to conquer Đại Việt (modern Vietnam). But unlike the swift victories in Central Asia and the Middle East, the Mongols met their match in the swamps and jungles of the Red River Delta. This episode focuses on the two Mongol invasions of Vietnam (1258 and 1284-88), the brilliant leadership of General Trần Hưng Đạo, and the innovative guerrilla tactics that exploited the Mongols' weaknesses.…
The Fall of Kiev 1240 Mongol Wrath on the Rus
In December 1240, the Mongol armies of Batu Khan and Subutai Bahadur reached the gates of Kiev, the golden-domed heart of the Rus' principalities. After a siege that lasted barely a week, the city fell in a storm of fire and blood. This episode dives into the final days of Kiev, the desperate defense led by voivode Dmytro, and the aftermath that left the city a smoking ruin for centuries. Drawing on the Novgorod First Chronicle and later accounts, we explore how Mongol siegecraft — including…
Ain Jalut 1260: The Mongols' First Major Defeat
In 1260, the Mongol Empire seemed unstoppable. Hulagu Khan's armies had sacked Baghdad, crushed the Assassins, and swept into Syria. Aleppo and Damascus fell. But at a spring in Palestine called Ain Jalut, an unlikely coalition of Mamluks, led by Sultan Qutuz and his general Baybars, turned the tide. This episode dives into the campaign that led to the battle, the tactical innovations that broke the Mongol charge, and the legacy of a victory that preserved the Islamic heartland. We explore the…
Mongol Invasions of Japan: The Divine Wind That Saved a Nation
In 1274 and 1281, Khubilai Khan launched the largest naval invasions the world had ever seen, aiming to conquer Japan. This episode unpacks the full story: the diplomatic demands and their rejection by the Kamakura shogunate, the harrowing amphibious assaults on Kyushu, the brutal samurai resistance, and the legendary typhoons—the kamikaze—that shattered the Mongol fleets. We examine the strategic decisions of Khubilai, the role of Korean and Chinese shipbuilding, the construction of Japan's…
Subutai at Mohi: The Mongol Battle That Shocked Europe
In April 1241, on the banks of the Sajó River in Hungary, the Mongol general Subutai Bahadur engineered one of the most decisive and tactically sophisticated battles of the 13th century. While Batu Khan commanded the main force, it was Subutai's strategic vision that shattered the army of King Béla IV of Hungary at the Battle of Mohi. This episode dives into the Mongol feigned retreat, the daring night crossing of the Sajó, the encirclement of the Hungarian camp, and the crushing defeat that…
The Mongol Invasion of the Himalayas: Nicaea's Unknown War
In the 1240s, while Europe braced for invasion after the Battle of Legnica, the Mongols launched a campaign into the high Himalayas against the Tibetan kingdoms and the Delhi Sultanate. This episode explores the little-known Mongol thrust into the mountains of Tibet and northern India. We examine why Ögedei Khan ordered this campaign, the role of Mongol general Doqolqu, the fierce resistance of Tibetan monasteries, and the climatic and logistical nightmare that halted the advance. We also look…
The Mongol Sack of Bukhara 1220: A City of Scholars Reduced to Ash
In 1220, the Mongol Empire descended on Bukhara, one of the great intellectual centers of the Islamic world. Lucas and Luna explore the siege that shattered the city's legendary libraries and mosques, the betrayal that opened its gates, and the aftermath that saw Genghis Khan address the surviving elite from the pulpit. They discuss the conflicting accounts from chroniclers like Ibn al-Athir and Juvayni, the fate of the city's scholars, and how Bukhara's fall foreshadowed the destruction of…
The Mongol Invasion of the Khwarezmian Empire A Total War
In this episode, we delve into the Mongol invasion of the Khwarezmian Empire (1219–1221), a turning point that transformed Chinggis Khan from a steppe conqueror into a world-shattering force. We explore the spark—the Otrar massacre where Shah Muhammad II executed Mongol envoys and merchants—and the calculated response: a multi-pronged invasion across the Syr Darya and Amu Darya rivers. We discuss the sieges of Otrar, Bukhara, Samarkand, and the harrowing pursuit of Jalal al-Din to the Indus…
The Mongol Invasion of Korea: 30 Years of Resistance
In 1231, the Mongol Empire under Ögedei Khan launched a massive invasion of Goryeo Korea, beginning a three-decade-long struggle that would see the Korean royal court flee to an island fortress on Ganghwa Island. This episode explores the nine Mongol campaigns against Goryeo, the fierce resistance led by generals like Kim Yun-hu and Choe U, and the ultimate submission of the kingdom through the Mongol peace terms of 1259. We discuss the role of the Sambyeolcho Rebellion, the devastating impact…
The Mongol Invasion of the Jin Dynasty: 23 Years of War
Before the Mongols swept through Central Asia and Europe, they fought a brutal, decades-long war against the Jin Dynasty in northern China. This episode explores the Mongol-Jin War from 1211 to 1234, a conflict that shaped Mongol military strategy and brought Chinese siege technology into their arsenal. We discuss the key battles like Yehuling (1211) and the siege of Kaifeng (1232–1233), the roles of Genghis Khan, Ögedei, and the Jin general Wanyan Heda, and the controversial use of gunpowder…
The Khagan's Death That Saved Europe
In December 1241, as Batu Khan and Subutai Bahadur prepared to cross the frozen Danube into Austria and Germany, a messenger arrived from Karakorum with news that changed the course of history: Ögedei Khan, son of Chinggis Khan and ruler of the Mongol Empire, had died nine months earlier. This episode examines the political crisis that forced Batu to turn back from Central Europe, the contested succession that followed, and the question of what might have happened had Ögedei lived another year.…
How the Mongols Mastered Siege Warfare
This episode dives into the Mongols' evolution from steppe horsemen to masterful siege engineers. Lucas and Luna explore how Genghis Khan and his successors integrated Chinese and Persian siege technology, including the hui hui pao (counterweight trebuchet), fire lances, and gunpowder rockets. They discuss the capture of Xiangyang, the role of captive engineers from the Jin and Song dynasties, and how Mongol adaptability turned walled cities into death traps. The conversation also touches on…
The Mongol Army's Siege Engineers and Chinese Rocket Technology
In episode 171, Lucas and Luna explore the Mongol army's sophisticated use of siege engineers and gunpowder weapons borrowed from the Chinese. They focus on the pivotal role of Chinese and Persian engineers in Mongol campaigns, the evolution of traction trebuchets to counterweight trebuchets, and the use of fire lances and early rockets. The episode highlights how Genghis Khan and his successors integrated captured specialists into a dedicated siege corps, enabling them to conquer fortified…
The Mongol Siege of Ryazan: First Fall of the Rus
In December 1237, the Mongol army under Batu Khan and Subutai Bahadur smashed into the Russian principalities, beginning with the fortified city of Ryazan. Drawing on the Novgorod First Chronicle and the Tale of the Destruction of Ryazan, Lucas and Luna reconstruct the five-day siege, the use of catapults and fire arrows, and the sheer speed of the Mongol advance across frozen rivers. They discuss the legendary figure of Yevpaty Kolovrat—a Ryazan noble who mounted a guerrilla campaign after the…
Genghis Khan's Secret Weapon: Mobility and Logistics
The Mongols didn't just win with terror and savagery; they won with logistics. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the Mongol military's incredible mobility — how they moved armies across vast distances faster than any other force of the era. We break down the yam messenger system, the use of remounts, the ability to live off the land with dried meat and mare's milk, and the strategic deployment of siege engineers from conquered territories. The episode also covers the controversial topic…
Genghis Khan's Spies How the Mongols Built an Intelligence Empire
The Mongols didn't just conquer through cavalry and terror — they had one of the most sophisticated intelligence networks the medieval world had ever seen. In this episode, Lucas and Luna dive into the shadow war that made Mongol victories possible. From Genghis Khan's early days, when he planted spies among the Tatars, to the vast network of merchants, travelers, and defectors who fed information back to Karakorum. We look at the Yam system — not just a postal relay but an…
The Mongol Sack of Samarkand 1220: Betrayal or Survival
In 1220, the greatest city of Central Asia fell to Genghis Khan's army not through brute force alone, but through a combination of terror, siegecraft, and the agonizing calculus of its defenders. Samarkand was the jewel of the Khwarezmian Empire, defended by 110,000 troops and 20 war elephants. Yet it surrendered within days. In this episode, Lucas and Luna examine the siege from the perspective of the city's Turkish garrison and civilian leaders, featuring Ibn al-Athir's eyewitness accounts…
Mongol Siege of Baghdad: The End of an Era
In this episode, Lucas and Luna delve into the Mongol siege of Baghdad in 1258, a cataclysmic event that marked the end of the Islamic Golden Age. They explore the strategic decisions of Hulagu Khan, the failed diplomacy of Caliph al-Musta'sim, and the role of the vizier Ibn al-Alqami. The discussion covers the use of siege engines, the destruction of the House of Wisdom, and the brutal aftermath. They also touch on the broader context of Mongol expansion under Möngke Khan and the subsequent…
The Mongol Siege of Nishapur 1221: Revenge and Ruin
In April 1221, the city of Nishapur in eastern Iran was one of the great cultural centers of the Islamic world—home to poets, scholars, and the tomb of Omar Khayyam. Then Genghis Khan's youngest son, Tolui, arrived with a Mongol army bent on vengeance. Why was Nishapur singled out for total annihilation? Two years earlier, the city's residents had killed a Mongol general and refused to submit. Now Genghis ordered that not a single inhabitant be spared—not even cats or dogs. In this episode…
Köten the Kipchak: The Mongol Campaign Against the Cumans
For decades the Mongols pursued a single steppe enemy across the plains of Eurasia. In this episode, Lucas and Luna follow the story of the Kipchak-Cuman confederation and its charismatic leader Köten. Fleeing the Mongol invasion of the western steppe in 1223, Köten sought refuge in Hungary, triggering a chain of events that led to the Mongol invasion of Europe. We examine the Battle of the Kalka River, the complex politics of the Rus principalities, and how Köten's alliance with Hungary…
The Mongol Siege of Baghdad 1258: End of the Islamic Golden Age
In 1258, Hulagu Khan's Mongol army descended on Baghdad, the glittering capital of the Abbasid Caliphate and the heart of the Islamic Golden Age. This episode recounts the siege that ended five centuries of Abbasid rule, from the caliph al-Musta'sim's fatal indecision to the betrayal of his vizier Ibn al-Alqami. We explore the unprecedented scale of destruction — libraries thrown into the Tigris, the House of Wisdom reduced to ash — and the brutal aftermath that reshaped the Middle East.…
Chinggis Khan's Fear Campaign: Terror as a Weapon of War
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore how Chinggis Khan and his generals weaponized fear itself, turning mass slaughter and calculated brutality into a strategic tool that preceded Mongol armies across Eurasia. They examine the siege of Nishapur in 1221, where the Mongol general Tolui carried out Chinggis's orders of total annihilation—leaving no stone standing and no soul alive—as a message to every city that might resist. The conversation digs into primary sources like the Persian…
The Mongol Postal System: How the Yam Kept an Empire Running
Lucas and Luna explore the Mongol Yam system — the vast relay network of horse stations that stretched from Karakorum to the Black Sea. Learn how riders could cross the empire in days, carrying messages, intelligence, and even fresh fruit for the Khan. Discover the ortoo stations, the paiza passes, and how Marco Polo described what he saw. Also: why the Yam outlasted the empire itself, and how its principles echo in modern logistics. A deep dive into the administrative genius behind Mongol…
The Mongol Siege of Kiev 1240: Ruin of the Rus
In this episode, Lucas and Luna examine the Mongol siege of Kiev in 1240, a pivotal moment in the Mongol invasion of the Rus' principalities. They discuss the fall of the city after a brutal assault led by Batu Khan and Subutai Bahadur, the strategic importance of Kiev, and the aftermath that left the city in ruins. The conversation covers the siege tactics used, including the use of Chinese siege engineers and catapults, the role of Prince Dmytro of Kiev, and the broader impact on Eastern…
The Mongol Siege of Urgench Genghis Khan vs Jalal al-Din
In 1221, Genghis Khan's Mongol army laid siege to Urgench, the wealthy capital of the Khwarezmian Empire, on the banks of the Amu Darya River. This episode follows the brutal campaign, from the city's formidable defenses to the internal tensions among Mongol generals Jochi and Chagatai, and the desperate resistance led by the Khwarezmian prince Jalal al-Din Mingburnu. We explore how the Mongols used siege engines, diversionary tactics, and flood the city via the river, leading to one of the…
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