Episodes
The Ganges and the Mauryan Navy: How Water Built an Empire
In this episode of Rivers That Created Empires, Lucas and Luna explore the role of the Ganges and its tributaries in the rise of the Mauryan Empire, focusing on the naval power of Chandragupta Maurya and his successors. They discuss the strategic importance of the river for trade, defense, and administration, and how the Mauryan navy controlled the waterways from Pataliputra to the Bay of Bengal. The conversation touches on the Arthashastra's detailed advice on naval warfare, the establishment…
The Hidden Science of Nile Flood Forecasting at Aswan
Before satellites and dams, the ancient Egyptians turned the Nile's annual flood into a science. At Aswan and Elephantine Island, nilometers measured the rising water with astonishing precision, and their readings set taxes, triggered religious festivals, and even decided the fate of harvests. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the engineering, astronomy, and bureaucracy behind flood prediction along the Nile — from the palermo stone's early records to the nilometer at Elephantine, the…
The Ganges and the Rise of Magadha: India's First Empire
This episode traces the Ganges River's role in the rise of Magadha, the kingdom that became the Mauryan Empire under Chandragupta and his advisor Kautilya. We explore how the river's fertile plains and iron deposits fueled military expansion, and how Kautilya's Arthashastra—a manual on statecraft, espionage, and economics—shaped the empire's policies. The discussion covers the Nanda dynasty, the conquest of the Gangetic basin, the administration of Pataliputra, and the legacy of Ashoka, who…
Pharaoh's Gold: Nubia's Gold and Egypt's Economy
In this episode, Lucas and Luna turn their gaze from the Nile's floods and calendars to the wealth that fueled Egypt's empire: gold. We trace the precious metal from the mines of Nubia to the pharaoh's treasury, uncovering the brutal labor of the miners, the divine status of gold as the flesh of Ra, and the geopolitics of the desert routes. We meet the god Amun-Ra at Karnak, whose temple complex became a financial powerhouse, and revisit the reign of Thutmose III, who brought gold and tribute…
Ganges and the Battle of Kurukshetra: Secrets of the Mahabharata
In this special 200th episode, Lucas and Luna leave the Nile behind to explore the Ganges and the sprawling plain of Kurukshetra, where the Mahabharata's great war unfolds. They dig into the historicity of the epic—what archaeology and astronomy suggest about the Kuru Kingdom, the possible dates of the conflict, and the chariot tactics described in the text. From the riddle of the 'varṇa' system to the Bhagavad Gita's battlefield dialogue, they weigh the evidence for a real Bronze Age war and…
The Nile's Other Gift: How the Sothic Cycle Shaped Egypt's Calendar
In this episode, Lucas and Luna continue their exploration of the Nile's influence on ancient Egypt by diving into the Sothic cycle. They discuss how the heliacal rising of the star Sopdet (Sirius) marked the new year and the start of the flood season, and how the Egyptians used a nilometer to measure the flood's height. The episode covers the three seasons of the Egyptian calendar—Akhet, Peret, and Shemu—and explains why the Sothic cycle, which spans 1,460 years, caused the calendar to drift.…
The Ganges and the Nalanda University
In this episode, Lucas and Luna travel to the banks of the Ganges to explore Nalanda, the ancient Buddhist university that turned a river basin into a crucible of learning. They trace its founding under the Gupta Empire, its golden age under kings like Harsha and the Pala dynasty, and the daily life of thousands of monks and students from across Asia. They dive into the curriculum—from Buddhist philosophy and logic to medicine and astronomy—and the famous library that drew scholars like…
The Tigris and the Fall of Babylon to Cyrus the Great
In 539 BCE, the Persian king Cyrus the Great marched on Babylon, the greatest city of the ancient world, and took it without a siege. This episode follows the Tigris River as the stage for that pivotal conquest — from Cyrus's diversion of the river to enter the city, to the role of the priestly class and the god Marduk, to the Babylonian Chronicle's dry record and the Cyrus Cylinder's propagandistic spin. Lucas and Luna also explore how the Tigris shaped Babylon's defenses, agriculture, and…
Tigris River: Babylon's Lifeline and the Hanging Gardens
In this episode of Rivers That Created Empires, Lucas and Luna turn to the Tigris River, the lifeblood of ancient Mesopotamia and the stage for Babylon's rise to glory. They explore how the Tigris, with its unpredictable floods and navigable waters, shaped the city's fortunes, from the Code of Hammurabi to the legendary Hanging Gardens. The episode digs into the river's role in trade, irrigation, and military defense, and uncovers the mystery of the Hanging Gardens—were they real, and if so…
The Nile's First Cataract: How Elephantine Guarded Egypt's Southern Door
In this episode, Lucas and Luna travel to Elephantine Island, the rocky frontier at Egypt's southern border, where the Nile's first cataract shaped trade, defense, and religious life for millennia. They explore how the island's granite quarries supplied the pyramids, how its nilometer measured the annual flood that fed the empire, and how the god Khnum was worshipped as the potter who created humanity on his wheel. Drawing on inscriptions, temple remains, and the writings of Herodotus and…
The Nile's Heart: Elephantine Island and the First Cataract
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the Nile's southern frontier at Elephantine Island and the First Cataract. From granite quarries that shaped Egypt's monuments to the ancient nilometers that measured the flood, this island was a trading post, a fortress, and a holy site. We meet the god Khnum, uncover the role of the Aswan quarries in building the pyramids, and trace the island's importance from the Old Kingdom to the Greek historian Herodotus, who described its mysteries. Along the way…
The Nile's Faiyum: How Egypt Mastered the Flood
This episode of Rivers That Created Empires takes us to the Faiyum, the lush oasis region southwest of Cairo that became Egypt's experimental farm for hydraulic engineering. Long before the Aswan Dam, pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom—especially Senusret II and Senusret III—reworked the natural Lake Moeris (modern Birket Qarun) into a massive reservoir, expanding a seasonal wetland into a year-round breadbasket. We explore the massive earthworks at el-Lahun, the channel known as the Bahr Yusuf…
The Nile's Canals and the Rise of Egyptian Engineering
Episode 192 of Rivers That Created Empires turns to the Nile's canals and the engineers who shaped Egypt's destiny. We trace the first attempts to tame the river's floodwaters, from the ancient basins of the Fayum to the ambitious projects of Middle Kingdom pharaohs like Senusret III, who built a massive irrigation network to control the waters for farming. We explore the crucial role of the nilometer in predicting floods, the construction of the Canal of the Pharaohs connecting the Nile to the…
The Rhine and the Gothic Invasion: Rome's Last River Frontier
In 376 CE, thousands of Goths appeared on the Danube's northern bank, seeking asylum from the Huns. Emperor Valens allowed them across, setting in motion a chain of events that ended with the Battle of Adrianople and the death of a Roman emperor. This episode follows the Goths' journey from the Danube to the heart of the empire, explores the strategic importance of Rome's river frontiers, and examines how a single decision to admit refugees led to a military catastrophe. Lucas and Luna discuss…
The Nile's Other Gift: How the Sothic Cycle Shaped Egypt's Calendar
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore how the ancient Egyptians built their calendar around the annual flooding of the Nile, tying it to the heliacal rising of the star Sirius (Sopdet). They discuss the civil calendar of 365 days, the wandering year, the Sothic cycle of 1,460 years, and how the priests used nilometers to predict the flood. The conversation touches on the three seasons — Akhet, Peret, and Shemu — and how the calendar governed everything from tax collection to religious…
The Nile's Gift: How Papyrus Made Egypt Eternal
This episode of Rivers That Created Empires turns from the Nile's floods and calendars to the plant that turned Egypt into the ancient world's paper mill: papyrus. Lucas and Luna trace the reed from the marshy banks of the Nile to the scrolls that carried Egyptian wisdom across the Mediterranean. They explore how the plant was harvested, how the ancient Egyptians pounded its stalks into flexible sheets, and how the resulting paper transformed record-keeping, literature, and administration. The…
The Nile's Flood and the Birth of Egyptian Calendars
In this episode of Rivers That Created Empires, Lucas and Luna explore how the Nile's annual flood shaped ancient Egypt's calendar, agriculture, and sense of time itself. They trace the invention of the 365-day civil calendar, the role of the star Sirius (Sopdet) and its heliacal rising, and the three-season cycle of Akhet, Peret, and Shemu. The conversation weaves in the nilometer at Elephantine, the farmer's year, and how the flood's predictability (and occasional failure) influenced kingship…
The Yellow River and the Rise of Chinese Civilization
In this episode of Rivers That Created Empires, Lucas and Luna trace the Yellow River's role in the birth of Chinese civilization. They examine the river's shifting course, its catastrophic floods, and the legendary Xia dynasty that rose to tame it. The conversation explores how the river's management led to centralized governance, the development of bronze casting, and the earliest Chinese writing. They also discuss the transition from the Shang to the Zhou dynasty, and how the river became…
The Nile and the Sea Peoples: Ramesses III's Battle for Egypt
In this episode, we explore a turning point in ancient history: the Nile Delta as the last line of defense against the Sea Peoples. Lucas and Luna dive into the reign of Ramesses III, the last great pharaoh of the New Kingdom, and his decisive victory at the Battle of the Delta around 1175 BCE. We discuss the mysterious origins of the Sea Peoples—from the Peleset and Tjeker to the Sherden and Teresh—the detailed reliefs at Medinet Habu that depict the naval clash, and the combination of land…
The Rhine and the Teutoburg Forest: Varus, Arminius, and Rome's Greatest Defeat
The Rhine River was supposed to be Rome's gateway to Germania—a highway for conquest. But in 9 CE, it became a graveyard for three legions. In this episode, we head deep into the forests east of the Rhine to revisit the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. We'll trace the ambitions of Publius Quinctilius Varus, the calculated betrayal of Arminius, a Roman-educated Cheruscan prince, and the catastrophic ambush that stopped Roman expansion dead in its tracks. Discover how the boggy ground at Kalkriese…
The Mekong and the Hydraulic City of Angkor
This episode of Rivers That Created Empires explores the Mekong River's role in the rise and fall of the Khmer Empire, the civilization behind Angkor Wat. We dive into the ingenious hydraulic engineering of the ancient Khmer, who built massive reservoirs called barays and an intricate canal network to control the Mekong's seasonal floods. Learn about King Jayavarman II, who founded the empire in the early 9th century, and Suryavarman II, the builder of Angkor Wat. But the very system that…
The Mississippi and the Mound Builders of Cahokia
Lucas and Luna explore the Mississippi River's role in the rise and fall of Cahokia, the largest pre-Columbian city north of Mexico. They discuss Monk's Mound, the woodhenge calendar, trade networks stretching from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, and the city's mysterious decline in the 1300s. The episode weaves together archaeology, climate data, and Native American oral traditions to understand how the river shaped—and was shaped by—this urban center. A must for fans of North American…
The Niger and Mansa Musa: Gold, Pilgrimage, and Empire
In this episode, Lucas and Luna travel to West Africa to explore the Niger River and the empire it powered: Mali. They focus on the reign of Mansa Musa (1312–1337), whose legendary pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324 flooded Cairo with gold and put Mali on world maps. The conversation covers the Niger’s role as a commercial highway for gold and salt, the rise of Timbuktu as a center of learning, and the construction of the Djinguereber Mosque. Lucas explains how the river’s seasonal floods supported…
Yangtze River and the Battle of Lake Poyang 1363
In 1363, on the waters of Poyang Lake and the Yangtze River, a peasant-born rebel named Zhu Yuanzhang faced his greatest rival, Chen Youliang, in what became one of the largest naval battles in history. This episode dives into the tactics, the fire ships, and the riverine strategy that allowed the outnumbered Zhu to triumph, paving the way for the Ming dynasty. We explore how the Yangtze served as both a highway and a weapon, and how control of its currents decided the fate of China. From the…
The Volga and the Rise of Kievan Rus: River of Traders and Kings
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore how the Volga River—Europe's longest—became the backbone of an empire. From the Khazar Khaganate to the Varangian trade routes, they trace the rise of Kievan Rus under figures like Rurik and Oleg. Discover how the Volga connected the Baltic to the Caspian, enabling the Slavic migrations that forged a new state. Along the way, they discuss portages, tribute systems, and the river's role as a highway for commerce and conquest. Perfect for anyone curious…
The Danube and Trajan's Dacian Wars: Rome's River Frontier
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the Danube River as the critical frontier of the Roman Empire, focusing on Emperor Trajan's Dacian Wars (101-106 AD). They discuss the engineering marvel of Trajan's Bridge, designed by Apollodorus of Damascus, the defeat of King Decebalus, and the establishment of the province of Dacia. The conversation covers the Column of Trajan as a historical source, the gold mines that funded Roman expansion, and the later abandonment of Dacia under Aurelian.…
The Euphrates and the Battle of Carrhae: Rome's Worst Defeat
In 53 BCE, the Euphrates River became the stage for one of ancient Rome's most humiliating disasters. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the lead-up to the Battle of Carrhae: Marcus Licinius Crassus's ill-fated invasion of Parthia, the cunning tactics of the Parthian general Surena, and the gruesome fate that awaited the Roman legions in the Mesopotamian desert. They discuss the role of the river as a natural boundary and a strategic corridor, the ominous omens that preceded the campaign…
The Tiber and the Gallic Sack of Rome 390 BCE
In 390 BCE, a Gallic army led by Brennus routed the Romans at the Battle of the Allia and sacked the city. This episode explores how the Tiber River shaped Rome's earliest defenses, enabled the evacuation of its sacred Vestal Virgins via the Pons Sublicius, and provided the lifeline for the defenders trapped on the Capitoline Hill. We examine the Cloaca Maxima, the Tiber Island, and the city's remarkable recovery under Marcus Furius Camillus—a turning point that forged the resilient Republic…
The Indus River and the Lost Cities of the Harappan Civilization
Lucas and Luna explore the Indus River and its role in creating the Harappan civilization, one of the world's earliest urban societies. They discuss the advanced city planning of Mohenjo-Daro, with its Great Bath and sophisticated drainage systems, and the enigmatic Indus script that still baffles scholars. The episode delves into the thriving trade networks that connected the Indus Valley with Mesopotamia, as evidenced by seals found at Ur and other sites. They also examine the mysterious…
The Ganges and the Battle of Hydaspes: Alexander's Final Victory
In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great fought his last major battle on the banks of the Jhelum River — known to the Greeks as the Hydaspes. This episode dives into the clash between Alexander's battle-hardened Macedonians and King Porus of the Paurava kingdom, whose army included war elephants that terrified the invaders. Lucas and Luna explore Alexander's cunning tactics — using a diversionary crossing under cover of a thunderstorm — and the bitter aftermath when his exhausted army mutinied at the…
The Ganges and the Gupta Golden Age: Mathematics, Astronomy, and Empire
In this episode of Rivers That Created Empires, hosts Lucas and Luna explore the Ganges during the Gupta Empire — often called India's Golden Age. Discover how the river's fertile plains fueled an empire that gave us the concept of zero, advanced astronomy, and landmark legal codes. Learn about Chandragupta I, Samudragupta the 'Napoleon of India', and the great astronomer Aryabhata. We discuss the iron pillar of Delhi, Nalanda University, and the Gupta legal system based on the Dharmaśāstras.…
The Ganges and the Nandas of Pataliputra: Empire Before the Mauryas
Before Chandragupta Maurya there was a dynasty that ruled the Ganges basin for a century, amassing staggering wealth and fielding the largest army of its time—only to be overthrown by a teenage strategist and his Brahmin mentor. In episode 173 of Rivers That Created Empires, Lucas and Luna explore the Nanda dynasty of Pataliputra, the iron-fisted rule of Mahapadma Nanda, the nine Nanda brothers, the Greek accounts of Alexander's contemporaries, and the rise of Chanakya. They discuss Nanda…
The Ganges and the Mauryan Empire: Kautilya's River State
Before the battles and the colonial interventions, the Ganges was the engine of India's first great empire. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore how the Mauryan dynasty, under Chandragupta Maurya and his advisor Kautilya, used the Ganges river system to build a centralized, bureaucratic superstate. They discuss the founding of Pataliputra (modern Patna) at a strategic bend in the river, the sophisticated water management described in the Arthashastra, and how control of the Ganges trade…
Tigris and the Garden of Eden: Myth and History in Mesopotamia
Where was the Garden of Eden? In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the ancient landscape of southern Mesopotamia, where the Tigris and Euphrates once met the Persian Gulf. They discuss the biblical rivers Pishon and Gihon, the Sumerian paradise of Dilmun, and the scholarly quest to locate Eden using geology, archaeology, and cuneiform texts. From the marshlands of the Shatt al-Arab to the ruins of Eridu, they trace how a real river system shaped one of humanity's most enduring myths. Along…
The Tigris and the Assyrian Siege of Jerusalem 701 BCE
In 701 BCE, the Assyrian king Sennacherib marched his armies along the Tigris River to lay siege to Jerusalem, threatening the Kingdom of Judah. This episode dives into the dramatic events of that campaign: the Assyrian conquest of Lachish, the psychological warfare of the Rabshakeh, the desperate prayers of King Hezekiah, and the mysterious plague that saved Jerusalem overnight. We explore the Assyrian siege tactics, the politics of tribute vs. rebellion, and how the survival of Jerusalem…
The Tigris and the Fall of Baghdad 1258: The River of Blood
In February 1258, the Tigris River turned red—not from silt, but from the blood of perhaps a million people. This episode explores the Mongol siege of Baghdad under Hulagu Khan, and how the Tigris, the lifeblood of the Abbasid Caliphate, became a conduit for destruction. We follow the city's defenses along the river, the breach at the Al-Mu'azzam Gate, and the catastrophic flood of ink in the Tigris when the House of Wisdom's books were thrown into the water. We discuss the role of the Tigris…
The Tigris and the Code of Hammurabi: Justice in Ancient Mesopotamia
Step back to 18th century BCE Babylon, where King Hammurabi inscribed his famous law code onto a stele of black diorite. In this episode, we explore the social, economic, and religious context of the Code of Hammurabi, which was discovered at Susa in 1901 and now resides in the Louvre. We discuss how the Code reflects Babylonian society, with its distinct classes of awilum (free men), mushkenum (commoners), and wardum (slaves), and how punishments varied based on status. We delve into specific…
The Tigris and the Assyrian Siege of Lachish
Lucas and Luna dive into the Tigris River's role in the Assyrian Empire, focusing on the siege of Lachish in 701 BCE. They explore how Sennacherib's military campaigns used river transport to project power, the famous Lachish reliefs from Nineveh, and the psychological warfare of the Assyrians. The episode also touches on Hezekiah's water tunnel in Jerusalem and the geopolitical context of the ancient Near East. A fresh angle on river-based empire building, distinct from previous episodes on…
The Yellow River and the Rise of Chinese Civilization
This episode takes us to the Yellow River, the cradle of Chinese civilization. We explore how the Huang He shaped early dynasties, from the mythical Xia to the Shang and Zhou, and how its floods and silt built the foundation of imperial China. Lucas and Luna discuss the river's role in state formation, the evolution of flood control under Yu the Great, and the cultural significance of the river as both a blessing and a curse. They touch on the oracle bone inscriptions from the Shang capital at…
The Nile and the Battle of Kadesh: Ramesses II's Greatest Gamble
In Episode 165 of Rivers That Created Empires, Lucas and Luna take you to the banks of the Orontes River—not the Nile itself, but the stage for ancient Egypt's most famous military confrontation. They explore the Battle of Kadesh (1274 BCE), where Ramesses II faced the Hittite king Muwatalli II in a clash of chariots and misinformation. Lucas unpacks the pharaoh's strategic blunder: walking into a Hittite ambush near the town of Kadesh. He recounts how Ramesses turned near-defeat into…
The Nile and the Nubian Pharaohs: When Black Pharaohs Ruled Egypt
Everyone knows the Nile gave life to Egypt. But what about the Nubians who came from further upriver—the Kushite pharaohs who conquered and ruled Egypt as the 25th Dynasty? This episode traces the Nile south to the kingdom of Kush, where Piye, Shabaka, Taharqa, and their successors built an empire that stretched from Khartoum to the Mediterranean. We explore how the Nile united two civilizations, the sack of Memphis by Piye's armies, the controversial 'Kushite period' in Egyptian history, and…
The Nile and the Silent Martyr: Hypatia of Alexandria
Alexandria, 415 CE. The great city on the Nile Delta is a crucible of Roman power, Greek learning, and rising Christian authority. In its streets, the philosopher and mathematician Hypatia — one of antiquity's most remarkable women — becomes a flashpoint for religious and political violence. This episode follows Hypatia's life: her father Theon, her teaching of Neoplatonism and astronomy, her role as a trusted advisor to the Roman prefect Orestes, and the escalating conflict between the…
The Nile and the Dam That Changed Everything: Aswan High Dam
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the Nile's most transformative modern intervention: the Aswan High Dam. Built by Gamal Abdel Nasser with Soviet support between 1960 and 1970, the dam ended the river's annual flood—the ancient Akhet season that had nourished Egyptian civilization for millennia. They discuss the human cost: over 100,000 Nubians displaced from their ancestral homeland, their villages submerged beneath Lake Nasser. The episode covers the salvage of Abu Simbel, the temple of…
The Nile and the Rosetta Stone: Deciphering Ancient Egypt
In this episode of Rivers That Created Empires, Lucas and Luna explore the story of the Rosetta Stone, the key that unlocked the secrets of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs. They trace the stone's discovery in 1799 by French soldiers near the Nile delta, its role in the rivalry between French scholar Jean-François Champollion and English polymath Thomas Young, and the breakthrough that came from Champollion's knowledge of Coptic. The conversation covers the stone's three scripts—hieroglyphic…
Mapping the World's Great Rivers: From Source to Sea
Lucas and Luna explore the geography and significance of the world's great rivers—the Nile, Ganges, Tigris, Euphrates, Indus, Yellow River, and more. They discuss how these waterways shaped civilizations, from annual floods that fertilized farmlands to their roles as trade routes and religious symbols. The conversation touches on the Nile's predictable inundation, the Ganges' sacred ghats, the Tigris-Euphrates system's role in the rise of Mesopotamia, and the Indus's connection to the Harappan…
The Nile and the Battle of Heliopolis 1800: Napoleon's Last Stand
In 1800, as Napoleon Bonaparte secretly slipped out of Egypt, General Jean-Baptiste Kléber faced a desperate situation. The Ottoman army, backed by the British, had landed at Abu Qir and was marching on Cairo. Kléber, a blunt Alsatian with a profound distaste for his commander's grandiosity, chose to meet them not behind the walls of Cairo but on the open plain near the ancient city of Heliopolis. This episode explores the Battle of Heliopolis, a decisive but rarely discussed engagement where…
The Nile and the Nilometer: Measuring Egypt's Lifeline
Long before satellites and dams, the ancient Egyptians measured the Nile's flood with remarkable precision using structures called nilometers. This episode takes you to the stone steps of Elephantine and the corridors of the Nilometer on the island of Roda, where priests and officials tracked the river's rise to predict harvests, set taxes, and even legitimize pharaohs. We explore the design of different nilometers—from the simple rock-cut staircase at Elephantine to the elaborate marble…
Nile's Scorpion King: Before the Pharaohs
Long before Narmer unified Upper and Lower Egypt, a ruler named Scorpion wielded power along the Nile. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the archaeological evidence for King Scorpion, his possible role in the Naqada III period, and the ceremonial macehead that bears his image. They discuss the challenges of interpreting predynastic symbols, the connection to the god Horus, and how recent discoveries at Hierakonpolis and Abydos are reshaping our understanding of Egypt's earliest state…
The Nile's Annual Flood: How the Inundation Shaped Egyptian Civilization
Long before the pyramids or pharaohs, the Nile's annual flood — the Inundation, or Akhet — was the heartbeat of ancient Egypt. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore how the river's predictable rise and fall created the agricultural surplus that made pharaonic civilization possible. They discuss the nilometers that measured the flood's height, the social and religious rituals tied to the event, and the political power that came from controlling the waters. The episode also examines the darker…
The Nile's Rosetta Stone: Deciphering Ancient Egypt
In this episode of Rivers That Created Empires, Lucas and Luna explore the story of the Rosetta Stone, discovered in 1799 by French soldiers near the Nile delta. They trace its journey from a forgotten slab of black granodiorite to the key that unlocked Egyptian hieroglyphs. The conversation covers the stone's three scripts—hieroglyphic, demotic, and ancient Greek—and the rival efforts of Thomas Young and Jean-François Champollion to crack the code. Champollion's breakthrough in 1822, using…
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