Episodes
Kublai Khan's Last Stand at Xiangyang
We explore the six-year siege of Xiangyang, the turning point that broke Song resistance and cemented Mongol rule over China. Lucas and Luna discuss the engineering marvels of the Yuan army, including the trebuchets designed by Persian engineers like Ismail and Ala al-Din, which shattered the city's walls. We look at the desperate defense led by the brothers Li Ting and Wang Yan, and how the fall of this strategic hub on the Han River allowed Kublai Khan to march on Hangzhou. This episode moves…
Kublai Khan's Lost Treasure Fleet
This episode explores the ambitious yet disastrous maritime expeditions launched by Kublai Khan in the late 13th century, focusing on the invasion of Japan and the failed campaigns against Java. While previous episodes covered his land-based military strategies, financial experiments, and the construction of Dadu, we turn our attention to the Yuan dynasty’s desperate attempt to project power across the sea. We examine the role of Admiral Wang Fu, the technological limitations of the Mongol…
Kublai Khan and the Mongol Rule of China
While earlier episodes have explored Kublai’s architectural marvels in Dadu, his monetary experiments with the chao, and the brutal mechanics of the Shumi Yuan secret police, this episode turns its gaze to the human cost of Mongol hegemony: the systematic marginalization of the Chinese scholar-official class. We examine how the Yuan dynasty dismantled the imperial examination system for decades, effectively severing the traditional path to power for Confucian literati. This policy created a…
Kublai Khan and the Secret Police of the Yuan Dynasty
We often think of Kublai Khan as a conqueror or a builder, but his most enduring legacy might be the bureaucratic machinery he built to hold China together. In this episode, we explore the Shumi Yuan, the Bureau of Military Affairs, which acted as the central nervous system of the Yuan state. We look at how Kublai used foreign advisors like Ahmad Fanakati and Bayan Yeseuer to bypass traditional Han Chinese ministerial structures, creating a parallel government that relied on loyalty and secrecy…
Kublai Khan and the Mongol Rule of China
While earlier episodes explored Kublai’s military campaigns, failed invasions, and architectural feats in Dadu, this episode turns to a different kind of conquest: the bureaucratic assimilation of the Yuan Dynasty. We examine how Kublai Khan navigated the delicate balance between his Mongol heritage and the Confucian traditions of China. The conversation focuses on the appointment of key figures like Ahmad Fanakati and Bayan Yeseuer, who managed the empire’s finances and administration. We look…
Kublai Khan's Persian Engineers and the Yuan Court
While Kublai Khan built his empire on the back of Mongol cavalry, the architectural soul of Dadu was shaped by a diverse team of artisans. This episode explores the role of Persian engineers, specifically Ahmad Fanakati, who managed the empire’s finances and urban planning. We look at how Chinese, Arab, and European craftsmen collaborated to create the Hall of Supreme Harmony and the intricate water systems that fed the capital. The narrative examines the tension between traditional Han…
Kublai Khan and the Secret Police of the Yuan Dynasty
In this episode, we peel back the layers of Kublai Khan’s surveillance state in Dadu. While previous episodes covered his military failures and architectural grandeur, we focus on the Shumi Yuan, the secret police force that kept the Mongol elite in check. We explore how Phagspa, the Tibetan monk who designed the national script, was also a key architect of the regime’s intelligence apparatus. The conversation delves into the role of Ahmad Fanakati, the Persian administrator who managed…
Kublai Khan's Forbidden City: The Architectural Soul of Dadu
While previous episodes have explored the military failures, economic experiments, and political structures of Kublai Khan’s Yuan Dynasty, this episode turns to the physical manifestation of his rule: the city of Dadu, modern-day Beijing. We examine how Kublai, a Mongol emperor ruling over Han Chinese subjects, commissioned the architect Yao Cheng and utilized traditional Chinese urban planning principles to build a capital that was both distinctly Mongol and seamlessly integrated into the…
Kublai Khan's Architectural Legacy in Dadu
While previous episodes explored Kublai Khan’s military failures and economic experiments, this episode examines the physical embodiment of his rule: the construction of Dadu, the Yuan capital. We trace how Kublai, advised by the Tibetan lama Phagspa and Chinese engineer Guo Shoujing, designed a city that merged Mongol steppe traditions with Song dynasty urban planning. The conversation details the precise alignment of the imperial axis, the placement of the Hall of Supreme Harmony, and the…
The Last Yuan Emperor and the Fall of Dadu
While previous episodes explored Kublai Khan’s military overreach, economic experiments, and cultural syntheses, this episode turns to the quiet unraveling of the Yuan Dynasty from within. We trace the reign of Toghon Temür, the last emperor of China’s Mongol rulers, whose thirty-six-year rule was defined by internal factionalism rather than external invasion. The narrative focuses on the catastrophic flooding of the Yellow River in 1344, a natural disaster that became the catalyst for the Red…
Kublai Khan's Secret Police and the Yuan Surveillance State
In Episode 226, Lucas and Luna explore the intricate web of intelligence that held Kublai Khan’s Yuan Dynasty together. We move beyond the grand canals and failed invasions to examine the Shumi Yuan, the secret police apparatus established in 1270 to monitor officials and suppress dissent. The conversation details how agents like Bayan and Ahmad Fanakati utilized a network of informants across Dadu and beyond, creating a climate of fear that permeated every level of administration. We discuss…
The Four Class System of the Yuan Dynasty
While Kublai Khan’s military campaigns and economic experiments often dominate historical accounts, his most enduring legacy lies in a rigid social hierarchy that reshaped Chinese society for nearly a century. This episode explores the Yuan dynasty's four-class system, which legally stratified subjects into Mongols, Semu people, Northern Han, and Southern Han based on when they were conquered. We examine how this structure influenced administration, justice, and daily life under Mongol rule…
The Yuan Dynasty's Censorship and Literary Suppression
In this episode, we explore the complex relationship between Kublai Khan’s Mongol rulers and the Chinese literati class they conquered. While previous episodes covered military campaigns and economic reforms like paper currency, we focus on the cultural tension that defined the Yuan dynasty. We examine how the suspension of the imperial civil service examinations for nearly eighty years displaced scholars, forcing them into drama and poetry rather than government service. Lucas details the…
The Yuan Dynasty's Censorship and Literary Suppression
While earlier episodes explored Kublai Khan’s military campaigns, diplomatic networks, and economic innovations like the chao banknote, Episode 223 examines a darker facet of his rule: the systematic suppression of Chinese literature and civil service examinations. We look at how the Mongol conquest led to the suspension of the imperial exams for nearly eighty years, effectively freezing social mobility for the Han elite. Lucas and Luna discuss the specific policies that marginalized Confucian…
Kublai Khan's Secret Police and the Yuan Surveillance State
While earlier episodes covered Kublai Khan’s military campaigns, diplomatic webs, and economic experiments like paper currency, we rarely looked at how he actually kept his vast empire from fracturing under its own weight. This episode explores the hidden machinery of Yuan rule: the secret police apparatus known as the Shumi Yuan and the intricate network of informants that stretched from Dadu to the furthest reaches of the southern provinces. We examine the role of Phagspa, the Tibetan monk…
Kublai's Failed Burma Campaign: The Battle of Ngasaunggyan
In 1277, Kublai Khan's Mongol forces marched into the Pagan Kingdom of Burma, clashing with King Narathihapate's war elephants at Ngasaunggyan. This episode unpacks the campaign that opened with a diplomatic insult and ended with a brutal Mongol victory — yet still cost the Yuan dynasty dearly in the jungles of the Irrawaddy. We follow the envoys, the armies, and the tactics: the Mongol cavalry's counter to elephant charges, the role of the Yunnan garrison, and the strange aftermath where the…
Kublai's Coinage: The Yuan Monetary Revolution
While Kublai Khan's paper currency often steals the spotlight, the Great Khan also minted an extraordinary array of coins that underpinned the Yuan dynasty's vast commercial network. This episode follows the journey of silver, copper, and even gold through the Mongol empire, from the mines of Yunnan to the bustling markets of Dadu. Lucas and Luna explore the practical realities of Yuan coinage: the standardized silver ingots that opened up trade along the Silk Road, the locally-minted copper…
Kublai's New Year: The Yuan Court's Grand Celebration
In this episode, Lucas and Luna step into the glittering world of Kublai Khan's court at Dadu to explore the Yuan dynasty's most spectacular annual event: the New Year's celebration. They examine the blend of Mongol, Chinese, and Persian rituals that defined the occasion, from the white garments worn by nobles to the elaborate gift-giving and the great feast held in the Hall of Great Brilliance. The conversation touches on the role of the astrologers who fixed the date, the reading of the…
Kublai's Paper Empire: The Yuan Banknote Experiment
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore Kublai Khan's bold attempt to build a unified currency for the Mongol Yuan dynasty. They trace the origins of paper money in China, from Tang dynasty merchants' receipts to the Song dynasty's jiaozi, and unpack how Kublai took this inherited system and turbocharged it into a continental standard. Along the way, they meet the Venetian merchant Marco Polo, whose astonished accounts of 'kublai khan's money' introduced Europeans to the concept of fiat…
The Four Great Khanates and Kublai's Broken Empire
In this episode, Lucas and Luna examine how Kublai Khan's reign reshaped the Mongol Empire, focusing on the four khanates that emerged after Genghis Khan's death. They discuss the Golden Horde under Berke, the Chagatai Khanate, the Ilkhanate under Hulagu, and the Yuan dynasty itself, tracing the political and cultural rifts that turned cousins into rivals. The conversation highlights key figures like Ariq Böke, the Toluid Civil War, and Kublai's failed attempt to reunify the Mongol world. It…
Kublai Khan's Grand Canal: The Waterway That Built an Empire
In this episode, Lucas and Luna trace the story of Kublai Khan's Grand Canal, the engineering marvel that connected the Yuan dynasty's new capital at Dadu to the rich rice fields of the Yangtze delta. They explore why Kublai, a Mongol who prized the steppe, invested in a massive waterway, how Guo Shoujing engineered the Tonghui Canal and the Baifu Spring aqueduct to feed the capital, and how the canal transformed northern China into an imperial heartland. Along the way, they unpack Marco Polo's…
Kublai Khan's Failed Sri Lanka Campaign
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore Kublai Khan's forgotten expedition to Sri Lanka in 1284, a mission sent to retrieve the Buddha's tooth relic. They piece together the story from Yuan Shi records, Ibn Battuta's later account, and Sinhalese chronicles, revealing a tale of diplomacy, piracy, and cultural exchange. They discuss Chandrabhanu's earlier Javanese invasion of Sri Lanka, the island's gem trade, and the failed Mongol mission that marked the empire's southernmost reach. The…
Kublai's Summer Palace: Shangdu and the Steppe Retreat
In episode 214 of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna step away from the battlefield to explore Kublai Khan's beloved summer capital, Shangdu — the Xanadu of Coleridge's imagination. Built on the edge of the Mongolian steppe in 1256, Shangdu was where the Great Khan escaped the heat and politics of Dadu to hunt, hawk, and drink mare's milk beneath the stars. Discover the city's dual identity: a Chinese-style grid of palaces and a vast imperial hunting park with yurts and wild animals. Learn how…
Kublai's Elephant Corps: War Elephants in Mongol Service
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore a lesser-known chapter of Kublai Khan's reign: the Mongol use of war elephants. From the first captured elephants in the campaign against the Song dynasty to the grand elephant parades in Khanbaliq, they trace how these animals were integrated into the Mongol military and court. They discuss the Battle of Ngasaunggyan in 1277, where Mongol cavalry first faced Burmese war elephants, and how Kublai's forces adapted. They also cover the logistics of moving…
Kublai Khan's Failed Java Invasion and the Rise of Majapahit
In 1292, Kublai Khan sent a massive fleet to Java to punish King Kertanegara of Singhasari. The invasion backfired spectacularly: the Mongol troops were lured into a trap by Raden Wijaya, the very prince who had sought their help. By 1293, the Mongols were gone, and Wijaya founded the Majapahit Empire, which would dominate the archipelago for two centuries. This episode unpacks the details: the insult that triggered the campaign, the fleet's three-month journey, the shifting alliances, and the…
Kublai Khan's Failed Crusade: The Mongol Navy at Cagayan
In 1281, Kublai Khan's Mongol navy set sail for Japan and met the kamikaze. But what if the real Mongol naval disaster happened in the Philippines? This episode of Fexingo History dives into the little-known 1282 Mongol invasion of Luzon, where a small force led by Qatral Din confronted the warriors of Madja-as at the Battle of Cagayan. We explore the context of Kublai's southern expansion, the strategic importance of the Philippine archipelago, and the surprising resistance that forced the…
Kublai Khan's Failed Crusade: The Mongol Navy at Cagayan
In 1281, Kublai Khan sent a fleet to subjugate the Philippines, but the Mongols met their match at the Battle of Cagayan against the determined warriors of the Madja-as confederacy. This episode explores the little-known expedition, the strategic ambitions that drove it, the naval tactics employed, and the enduring legacy of this clash in the Visayan seas. We follow the journey of the Mongol fleet from China to the island of Luzon, the resistance led by chieftain Kalipulako, and the surprising…
Kublai Khan's Polo Grounds: The Sport That Shaped Yuan Rule
When Kublai Khan rode into northern China in the 1260s, he brought more than armies — he brought the thunder of hooves and the crack of mallets. Polo, the ancient game of Central Asian elites, became a tool of Mongol statecraft under the Yuan dynasty. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore how the khan used the sport to maintain martial readiness, assert authority over his Chinese subjects, and project an image of nomadic vigor from Dadu to the steppe. They trace the game's origins among…
Kublai Khan's Failed Champa Invasion: The Mongol Retreat from Vietnam
In this episode of Fexingo History, hosts Lucas and Luna explore Kublai Khan's failed invasion of Champa in the 1280s—a campaign that marked the limits of Mongol military might in Southeast Asia. They discuss the initial Mongol alliance with the Cham king Jaya Indravarman IV, the subsequent betrayal and attack on the citadel of Vijaya, and the brutal siege that ended in a Mongol retreat. Lucas explains how the Cham guerrilla tactics, the tropical climate, and the mountainous terrain neutralised…
Kublai Khan's Failed Java Invasion
In 1292, Kublai Khan, ruler of the largest land empire in history, launched a naval expedition across the South China Sea to conquer Java. It would become one of the most bizarre and disastrous campaigns of the Yuan dynasty. This episode unpacks the strange tale of the Mongol fleet, the Javanese king who played them, and the last great naval adventure of the khagan. We follow the mission of Shi Bi and the Mongol armada—over a thousand ships carrying twenty thousand soldiers—as they sail from…
Kublai Khan's Grand Canal: The Waterway That Built an Empire
In 1293, Kublai Khan completed a monumental engineering project that would shape China for centuries: the Grand Canal. Stretching over 1,700 kilometers from Hangzhou to his new capital at Dadu (modern Beijing), this vast waterway linked the fertile Yangtze rice fields to the Mongol court in the north. But this was no simple ditch — it was a logistical lifeline, a political statement, and a technological marvel. Join Lucas and Luna as they explore how the canal moved grain, troops, and ideas…
Kublai Khan's Failed Siege of the Twin Fortresses
In 1268, Kublai Khan faced a formidable obstacle in his quest to conquer the Southern Song dynasty: the twin fortresses of Xiangyang and Fancheng, guarding the Han River and the approach to the Yangtze. This episode explores the five-year siege that became a crucible of Mongol military engineering and diplomacy. We follow the Mongol generals Liu Zheng and Aju as they tighten their stranglehold, the Song commander Lü Wenhuan's desperate defense, and the pivotal arrival of Persian engineers with…
The Mongol Navy: Kublai's Fleet and the South China Sea
In this episode, Lucas and Luna dive into a lesser-known chapter of Kublai Khan's reign: his ambitious naval expansions in the South China Sea. While many remember the failed invasions of Japan and Java, Kublai also built a formidable navy to project power along the Chinese coast and into Southeast Asia. We trace the origins of the Yuan fleet, from the Song dynasty's inherited ships to the construction of new vessels at Jiangnan shipyards. We explore key figures like the admiral Shi Bi, who led…
Kublai Khan's Diplomatic Web: Envoys, Paiza, and the Mongol Court
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the intricate diplomatic machinery of Kublai Khan's Yuan dynasty — the envoys, the paiza (the Mongol passport system), and the protocols of the court at Dadu. They trace how the Great Khan managed relations with the Ilkhanate, the Golden Horde, and distant lands like Japan and India, using marriage alliances, trade agreements, and the threat of force. The conversation touches on the famous Polos, the role of Nestorian Christians and Muslim merchants, and…
Kublai Khan's Hunt and the Making of Mongol Identity
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore how Kublai Khan's grand hunts, known as the Great Hunt, functioned as far more than royal sport. Drawing on Marco Polo's vivid account, they uncover how these massive expeditions, with their intricate encirclements and disciplined lines of beaters, trained soldiers, tested commanders, and reinforced the social hierarchy of the Yuan dynasty. They discuss the role of the keshig, the imperial bodyguard, in organizing these events, the symbolic importance of…
Kublai Khan's Failed Japan Invasions: The Kamikaze Myth
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna explore the legend and reality behind Kublai Khan's two failed invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281. They separate the myth of the divine wind, or kamikaze, from the actual military and logistical failures that saved Japan. Learn about the fierce samurai defense led by the Hōjō regency, the construction of defensive walls around Hakata Bay, the doomed second invasion fleet, and the typhoons that scattered the Mongol forces. Discover how these…
Kublai Khan's Naval Failure at the Battle of Kōan 1281
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna revisit the second Mongol invasion of Japan — the Battle of Kōan, 1281. They explore the massive Yuan fleet sent by Kublai Khan, the two-pronged attack from Korea and the south, and the unexpected storms that devastated the invasion force. Through the eyes of samurai like Takezaki Suenaga, they examine the desperate defense mounted by the Kamakura shogunate, the role of the "divine wind" (kamikaze), and the long-term consequences, including the…
Kublai Khan's Postal Riders: The Yam Relay System
In this episode, Lucas and Luna ride along the Yam, the Mongol Empire's extraordinary relay system that carried messages across Eurasia at speeds modern readers might find hard to believe. We trace its origins under Genghis Khan, its expansion under Kublai Khan, and the daily life of the men who kept the couriers moving — the urtachi, the station masters, and the thousands of horses and riders who made the empire's famously fast communication possible. We meet the Persian historian Juvayni, who…
Kublai Khan's Failed Invasion of Champa and the Mongol Retreat from Vietnam
In 1282, Kublai Khan sent an army south to demand submission from the kingdom of Champa, a coastal state in what is now central Vietnam. What began as a straightforward show of force became a disastrous jungle campaign that drained Yuan resources and ended in a humiliating retreat. Lucas and Luna unpack the Champa campaign—the diplomatic insult that provoked it, the fierce resistance of King Jaya Indravarman IV, the siege of Vijaya, and the disease and supply failures that crippled the Mongol…
Kublai Khan's Paper Money: How the Yuan Invented Fiat Currency
Long before central banks, Kublai Khan's Yuan dynasty ran the world's first large-scale paper money system — and it worked, until it didn't. In this episode, Lucas and Luna trace the rise of paper currency from Tang-era promissory notes to the Mongol state monopoly under the Yuan, where paper notes called chao (or 'Chao') were backed not by gold or silver but by the emperor's authority. They explore how the system fueled trade along the Silk Road, how Marco Polo described it with wonder, and…
Kublai Khan's Failed Tibet Expedition and the Mongol Retreat from the Plateau
When Kublai Khan turned his gaze southward from Dadu, he expected a quick submission from the fractured Tibetan states. Instead, he faced a series of bloody setbacks that revealed the limits of Mongol power on the roof of the world. In this episode, Lucas and Luna trace the Yuan dynasty's attempt to enforce its authority over Tibet through the disastrous expedition of 1280, the fierce resistance led by the monk Drogön Chögyal Phagspa's rival, the military strategies that failed against the…
Kublai Khan's Failed Burma Campaign and the Mongol Defeat at Ngasaunggyan
In 1277, Kublai Khan's Yuan Dynasty marched south into Burma, confident that the Mongol war machine could crush any opposition. But at the Battle of Ngasaunggyan, they met the war elephants of the Pagan Kingdom, and the outcome was far from certain. This episode tells the story of that forgotten campaign: the raids that provoked it, the terrifying sight of armored elephants, the Mongol crossbowmen who broke the charge, and the strategic reasons why Kublai's generals pushed into the jungles of…
Kublai Khan and the Enigma of the Assassins
In this episode, Lucas and Luna delve into the shadowy history of the Nizari Ismaili state, commonly known as the Assassins, and their eventual destruction by the Mongols. The conversation traces the rise of Hasan-i Sabbah and the mountain fortresses of Alamut, the strategic threat the Nizaris posed to the surrounding powers, and the dramatic siege and fall of Alamut in 1256 under Hulagu Khan. They explore the legends surrounding the Assassins—from Marco Polo's tales of paradise and hashish to…
Kublai Khan's Failed Siege of the Twin Fortresses
In 1273, Kublai Khan's armies finally cracked the Song Dynasty's stubborn defense at Xiangyang, but the real story lies in the months-long siege of the twin fortresses of Fancheng and Xiangyang. This episode follows the Mongol-Yuan forces under the command of General Liu Zheng and his engineers, who deployed trebuchets imported from the Middle East to smash the Song's riverine supply lines. We explore the ingenious counter-siege tactics of the Song commanders, the desperate attempts to resupply…
Kublai Khan's Great Stupa: The White Pagoda of Dadu
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna explore the White Stupa of Dadu, the towering monument built by Kublai Khan to solidify his rule over a conquered China. They trace the project from the arrival of the Nepalese artisan Araniko in 1260, through the design and construction of the stupa, its consecration by the Tibetan lama Phagspa, and its role as the symbolic center of the new Yuan capital. The conversation touches on the blend of Buddhist, Mongol, and Chinese influences, the…
Kublai Khan's Great Mongol Hunt: The Organized Chaos of the Hunt
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna dive into the Great Mongol Hunt, the grand hunts that Kublai Khan hosted in the Yuan dynasty. They explore how the hunt was a massive military exercise, a display of imperial power, and a deeply organized operation that involved thousands of men, stretching across the steppe. The conversation covers the logistics of the hunt, the role of the keshig (the imperial guard), the use of trained animals like cheetahs and falcons, and the hunt's…
Kublai Khan's Conquest of Dali: The Gateway to the South
Long before Kublai became Khagan, his brother Möngke tasked him with conquering the Dali Kingdom in modern Yunnan. This episode follows the 1253 campaign that brought the Mongol army through highland passes, against fortified cities, and into a Buddhist kingdom protected by the Three Pagodas. Lucas and Luna discuss the tactical brilliance of general Uryankhadai, the role of Tibetan and Uyghur allies, and the surrender of King Duan Xingzhi. They explore how this unlikely conquest gave the…
Kublai Khan's Confucian Scholar: Xu Heng and the Imperial Academy
After conquering the Song, Kublai Khan faced the challenge of governing a vast Chinese population. He turned to Confucian scholars like Xu Heng, a Neo-Confucian teacher who became the head of the new Imperial Academy in Dadu. This episode explores how Xu Heng advised the Mongol emperor, taught Confucian classics to Mongol princes, and tried to preserve Chinese learning under foreign rule. We discuss the tension between Mongol traditions and Chinese bureaucracy, the failed attempt to restore…
Kublai Khan's Sacred Alliance: The Mongol Embrace of Tibetan Buddhism
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna explore Kublai Khan's transformative relationship with Tibetan Buddhism. Discover how the Mongol emperor forged a priest-patron bond with the Sakya lama Drogön Chögyal Phagspa, granting him imperial preceptor status and unifying Tibet under Mongol protection. Learn about the creation of the 'Phagspa script—a universal writing system for the Yuan dynasty—and its impact on administration and culture. We also delve into the political and spiritual…
The Last Stand of the Song: Kublai Khan's Victory at Yamen
In 1279, a fleet of thousands of ships clashed off the coast of Guangdong, marking the final, tragic end of the Song dynasty. After twenty years of war, Kublai Khan's Yuan forces cornered the last Song emperor—a seven-year-old boy—and his loyal court at Yamen. This episode tells the story of that desperate naval battle: the Han Chinese admiral Zhang Hongfan who commanded the Mongol fleet, the Song general Zhang Shijie who chained his ships together, and the scholar-official Lu Xiufu who jumped…
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