Episodes
The Last Ottoman Mapmaker: Piri Reis and the Empire's End
Before the Ottoman Empire dissolved, its cartographers were drawing the final lines of a world that was slipping away. In this episode, Lucas and Luna trace the life of Piri Reis, the Ottoman admiral and mapmaker whose 1513 world map captured a fragment of the Americas decades before most Europeans knew they existed. From the Topkapı Palace archives to the lost maps of the 16th century, they explore how Ottoman cartography blended piratical intelligence, Greek scholarship, and Islamic…
The Last Ottoman Map: Unmaking an Empire
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the final cartographic act of the Ottoman Empire: the secret wartime map drawn in 1915 by British intelligence officer Mark Sykes. Stretching from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf, Sykes's sketch became the blueprint for the Sykes-Picot Agreement, carving Ottoman lands into zones of French and British control. Along the way, they trace the long Ottoman cartographic tradition—from Piri Reis's sixteenth-century portolan charts to the imperial mapping…
The Last Ottoman General Who Chose the Republic
In the summer of 1920, as the Ottoman Empire crumbled into occupation and the Sultan's government signed away Arab provinces at Sèvres, one of the Empire's most decorated commanders made a quiet choice that would shape the modern Middle East. Fevzi Çakmak — the last Ottoman field marshal, a hero of Gallipoli and the Caucasus — walked away from the Sultan's court and joined Mustafa Kemal's Ankara government. This episode traces Çakmak's journey from the Balkan Wars to the brink of the Turkish…
The Last Truce: Mudros and the Ottoman Surrender
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the final months of the Ottoman Empire through the lens of the Armistice of Mudros, signed aboard the HMS Agamemnon on 30 October 1918. They trace the collapse of the Yıldırım Army Group, the flight of the Committee of Union and Progress leaders, and the British occupation of Constantinople. The conversation weaves in the Treaty of Sèvres, the rise of the Ankara government, and the burning question: could the empire have survived with a different peace?…
The Last Ottoman Prisoner: Malta's Exiled Elite
In the chaotic years after the Armistice of Mudros, the British didn't just occupy Constantinople—they rounded up hundreds of Ottoman officials and shipped them off to a remote Mediterranean island. This episode follows the forgotten exiles of Malta: the grand viziers, ministers, and intellectuals held for over two years while the fate of their empire hung in the balance. We trace the journey from the Sublime Porte to Valletta, the daily life of detention at the Verdala Barracks, and the…
The Last Ottoman Decree: Why the Caliphate Was Abolished
When Mustafa Kemal abolished the caliphate in 1924, he didn't just end a dynasty—he dismantled a thousand-year-old institution that had defined Islamic political authority. This episode traces the caliphate's final years from the Ottoman defeat in WWI to the dramatic vote in the Grand National Assembly. We explore the roles of Abdülmecid II, the last caliph, and the political maneuvering of İsmet İnönü and the Ankara government. We also examine the global reaction—from Indian Muslims sending…
How a Coup in 1913 Doomed the Ottoman Empire
In January 1913, a band of young officers stormed the Sublime Porte, shot the war minister, and forced the grand vizier to resign at gunpoint. That coup brought the Committee of Union and Progress — the CUP — to absolute power, and set the Ottoman Empire on a path that ended in 1922. In this episode, Lucas and Luna trace the 1913 Raid on the Sublime Porte: the political chaos after the First Balkan War, Enver Pasha's dramatic rise, the CUP's ruthless consolidation, and how a committee once…
The Ottoman Empire's Last Naval Disaster: The Battle of Imbros
In January 1918, the Ottoman Navy made its final bold gamble of World War I: a breakout from the Dardanelles to strike Allied ships off the island of Imbros. What followed was a dramatic engagement that saw the battlecruiser Yavuz Sultan Selim (formerly the German Goeben) and the cruiser Midilli (formerly the Breslau) face off against British destroyers and a deadly minefield. This episode tells the story of the Battle of Imbros — the planning, the clash, the losses, and the aftermath that left…
How a Railway Built by Germans Decided the Fate of the Ottoman Empire
In the years before World War I, the Ottoman Empire was ailing, but a single project seemed to promise a new lease on life: a railway from the Bosphorus to Baghdad, financed and built by German engineers. The Baghdad Railway, as it came to be known, was more than tracks and tunnels — it was a lifeline for the sultan, a shortcut for the Kaiser's imperial ambitions, and a flashpoint that drew the Ottomans into the Great War on the side of the Central Powers. In this episode, Lucas and Luna trace…
The Ottoman Empire's Last Spy: Karakol's Secret War
After the Armistice of Mudros, the Ottoman Empire was occupied and the Allies thought the resistance was over. But a secret organization called Karakol — 'The Watchman' — was already moving. Led by former Committee of Union and Progress operatives like Kara Vasıf and Baha Said, Karakol smuggled weapons to Anatolia, forged passports, and ran a shadow intelligence network right under the noses of British occupation forces in Constantinople. This episode traces Karakol's daring operations: the…
How a Secret Telegram Brought Down the Ottoman Empire
In this episode, Lucas and Luna uncover the story of the notorious 'Troy telegram' — a coded Ottoman military communiqué intercepted and published by Britain in 1917 that exposed the empire's secret wartime agreements and fueled the Arab Revolt. They trace how this single document, sent from the Ottoman foreign ministry to diplomatic posts in the Middle East, revealed the suppression of Arab nationalism and the planned partition of Ottoman territories, pushing the Hashemite revolt into the…
The Last Ottoman Parliament: Ankara 1920
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna explore the final session of the Ottoman Parliament in 1920 — a dramatic meeting in occupied Constantinople that set the stage for the Turkish War of Independence. They discuss the Misak-ı Milli (National Pact), the arrest of deputies by British forces, the flight to Ankara, and the assembly's transformation into the Grand National Assembly under Mustafa Kemal. Along the way, they touch on the role of the Karakol society, the Sultan's reluctant…
The Ottoman Empire's Last Grand Vizier: Ahmed Izzet Pasha
In October 1918, as the Ottoman Empire collapsed, Sultan Mehmed VI appointed Ahmed Izzet Pasha as Grand Vizier. A career soldier and war minister who had opposed Enver Pasha's German alliance, Izzet Pasha faced the impossible task of negotiating an armistice with the Allies. This episode follows his brief, tragic premiership — from the Mudros Armistice negotiations aboard HMS Agamemnon to the occupation of Constantinople and his flight to Malta. We explore his attempts to save the empire…
The Last Ottoman Census of 1914
Long before the empire fell, the Ottoman state tried to count every soul within its borders. In 1914, a meticulous census recorded a population of over 18 million—Muslims, Christians, Jews, and others—across Anatolia, the Arab provinces, and the Balkans. This episode follows the census from its planning in Istanbul to its execution in mud-hut villages, desert caravanserais, and mountain pastures. We meet the officials who trudged with ledgers, the village headmen who vouched for their…
The Last Ottoman Sultan's Final Days: Exile in Sanremo
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the final chapter of the Ottoman Empire through the eyes of its last sultan, Mehmed VI Vahdettin. After the armistice and the Allied occupation of Constantinople, Vahdettin cooperated with the occupiers, hoping to preserve his throne. But as Mustafa Kemal's nationalist movement grew in Ankara, the sultan's authority crumbled. Lucas details Vahdettin's secret correspondence with British officials, his decision to flee on HMS Malaya in November 1922, and…
The Last Caliph: Mehmed VI's Final Year in Exile
After the Armistice of Mudros, the Ottoman Empire was a corpse waiting for burial. Sultan Mehmed VI, the last caliph of Islam, spent his final months as a puppet on the Bosphorus before fleeing Istanbul on a British warship. This episode follows the sultan's last year in power: his doomed attempt to save the dynasty by cooperating with the Allies, his betrayal by the nationalist movement in Ankara, and his lonely death in Sanremo, Italy. We trace the secret negotiations with the British, the…
The Ottoman Empire's Last Laugh: The 1921 Battle of Sakarya
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna explore the Battle of Sakarya (September 1921), the turning point that doomed the Ottoman Empire's hopes of crushing the Turkish nationalists. With the Greeks advancing on Ankara, Mustafa Kemal famously declared, 'There is no line of defense, there is a line of defense of the surface,' as his forces dug in along the muddy banks of the Sakarya River. The 22-day battle, fought under relentless artillery fire, saw the undermanned Turks hold the…
How WWI Bankrupted the Ottoman Empire
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the economic collapse of the Ottoman Empire during World War I — a financial catastrophe that was as devastating as any battlefield defeat. They trace how the empire, already burdened by the Düyûn-ı Umûmiyye (Ottoman Public Debt Administration), plunged into hyperinflation by printing paper money (kağıt para). They discuss the gold reserves hidden in the Reichsbank, the failed German loans, the famine in Mount Lebanon, and the final desperation that led…
The Fall of Jerusalem: How the Ottomans Lost the Holy City
In December 1917, the British Army under General Edmund Allenby marched into Jerusalem, ending 400 years of Ottoman rule over the Holy City. This episode looks at the Palestine campaign that led to that moment: the failed Ottoman defense of Gaza, the stunning Australian Light Horse charge at Beersheba, the role of German commander Erich von Falkenhayn, and the Ottoman collapse that followed. Lucas and Luna examine why the Empire lost its grip on this symbolic city, how the British won the…
Megiddo 1918 The Battle That Destroyed the Ottoman Army
In September 1918, the Ottoman Empire's last major army was shattered at Megiddo in northern Palestine. This episode follows General Edmund Allenby's final offensive against the Yildirim Army Group, commanded by German General Liman von Sanders, with Mustafa Kemal leading the Seventh Army. We explore the massive artillery barrage, the cavalry breakthrough that collapsed the Ottoman front, and the chaotic retreat that forced the empire to sue for peace. The battle exposed the exhaustion of…
The Last Sultan: Mehmed VI's Escape on a British Warship
The Ottoman Empire did not end with the Armistice of Mudros in 1918. Four years later, Sultan Mehmed VI Vahdettin, the last Ottoman sultan, fled Istanbul on a British battleship. This episode tells the story of his final days in power, the abolition of the sultanate by the Turkish Grand National Assembly on November 1, 1922, and his exile to Malta and Sanremo, Italy, where he died in 1926. Along the way, we examine the tense relationship between the sultan and Mustafa Kemal's nationalists, the…
The Frozen Grave of an Empire: Sarikamish 1914
In the winter of 1914, Enver Pasha launched a disastrous offensive against Russia in the Caucasus that would cost the Ottoman Empire over 90,000 men, mostly from frostbite, disease, and starvation. This episode takes you into the snowbound Allahuekber Mountains, following the ill-fated Third Army as it advanced on Sarikamish without winter clothing or proper supply lines. We explore Enver's personal command, the fatal underestimation of terrain, and how the battle shattered Ottoman military…
The Great Famine That Killed Half of Mount Lebanon
World War I ended the Ottoman Empire not only through military defeat but through the complete collapse of its civilian infrastructure. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the Great Famine of Mount Lebanon and Greater Syria from 1915 to 1918. They discuss how the Allied naval blockade, Ottoman requisitioning, swarms of locusts, and the corrupt incompetence of Cemal Paşa's administration combined to kill an estimated 200,000 people in Mount Lebanon alone — half the population. The episode…
The Last Ottoman Army: Demobilization and Resistance
After the Armistice of Mudros ended World War I, the once-mighty Ottoman army was ordered to disarm and demobilize. But many officers refused to accept defeat. In this episode, Lucas and Luna trace how commanders like Kazım Karabekir and Mustafa Kemal secretly preserved weapons, hid military supplies, and built the foundations of the Turkish War of Independence. The underground organization Karakol smuggled tens of thousands of rifles from Constantinople to Anatolia, often hidden in funeral…
The Allied Occupation of Constantinople 1918-1923
When World War I ended, the Ottoman capital did not taste peace. In November 1918, Allied warships anchored off the Bosphorus and troops marched into Constantinople. This episode explores the four-year occupation that followed: the daily humiliations of censorship and foreign patrols, the rise of secret resistance networks like Karakol, the Allied High Commissioners' attempts to control the Sultanate, and the quiet anxiety of Istanbul's cosmopolitan population. We follow key moments from the…
The Secret Pact That Brought the Ottoman Empire Into WWI
In the summer of 1914, the Ottoman Empire was a shadow of its former self, but still a prize for the warring powers. This episode unpacks the secret German-Ottoman alliance signed on August 2, 1914, just days after the outbreak of World War I. We follow the internal struggle between Enver Pasha's war faction and Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha's cautious diplomacy. Then comes the Goeben and Breslau incident — German warships that evaded the British Mediterranean fleet, were 'sold' to the Ottoman…
The Ottoman Empire's Last Hidden Gold
In the final months of World War I, as the Ottoman Empire crumbled, its leaders secretly shipped tons of gold reserves to Germany to keep them from Allied hands. This episode traces the journey of the Imperial Ottoman Treasury from the vaults of the Ottoman Bank in Istanbul to the Reichsbank in Berlin. Lucas and Luna unpack the logistics of moving 41 tons of gold across Europe in 1918, the role of Talat Pasha and the German embassy, and the tragic irony that this treasure would later be used by…
The Flight of the Three Pashas: How the CUP Leaders Escaped the Ottoman Empire
In October 1918, as the Ottoman Empire faced total collapse in World War I, its three most powerful men—Enver Pasha, Talat Pasha, and Cemal Pasha—made a desperate decision to flee. This episode follows the final days of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) leadership, from the resignation of the war cabinet to their escape aboard a German submarine in the dead of night. We trace their paths: Talat's assassination in Berlin, Cemal's death in Tbilisi, and Enver's quixotic end in Central…
The Armenian Genocide and the End of the Ottoman Empire
In this episode of How World War I Ended the Ottoman Empire Forever, Lucas and Luna explore the Armenian Genocide—a systematic campaign of deportation and mass killing that began in April 1915. They discuss the key architects like Talat Pasha and Enver Pasha, the Tehcir Law of May 1915, and the role of the Special Organization (Teşkilat-ı Mahsusa). The episode covers the death marches into the Syrian desert, the resistance at Van, and the contested death toll. Lucas explains how the genocide…
How the Ottoman Army Starved: The Last Stand of Fahreddin Pasha at Medina
In this episode of How World War I Ended the Ottoman Empire Forever, Lucas and Luna explore one of the war's most extraordinary holdouts: the Ottoman defense of Medina under Fahreddin Pasha. While the empire collapsed around him, Fahreddin refused to surrender the holy city for over two years after the armistice. We trace his supply lines via the Hejaz Railway, the daily reality of starvation and disease, his defiance of direct orders from Istanbul, and the bizarre standoff with Arab forces and…
The Last Ottoman Victory: Gallipoli 1915
Lucas and Luna revisit the Gallipoli campaign of 1915, a pivotal Ottoman victory that delayed the empire's collapse. They explore the strategic miscalculations of the Allied naval attack, the leadership of Mustafa Kemal at Anzac Cove and Chunuk Bair, the devastating cost of the campaign, and its enduring legacy in Turkey's national consciousness. The conversation also touches on the role of German naval vessels like the Goeben, the Dardanelles defense, and how the victory shaped the empire's…
The Ottoman Empire's Last Naval Disaster: HMS Agamemnon
In this episode of How World War I Ended the Ottoman Empire Forever, Lucas and Luna explore the little-known story of the HMS Agamemnon, the pre-dreadnought battleship that hosted the Armistice of Mudros in 1918. They trace the ship's career from its launch in 1906 to its role in the Dardanelles campaign, where it shelled Ottoman forts and survived submarine attacks. The conversation reveals how this aging vessel became a symbol of Ottoman defeat, anchored off Limnos as Ottoman delegates signed…
The Ottoman Empire's Last Grand Admiral Wilhelm Souchon
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the remarkable story of Wilhelm Souchon, the German admiral who effectively commanded the Ottoman Navy during World War I. They trace how Souchon's aggressive leadership, including the famous Black Sea raid in October 1914, dragged the Ottoman Empire into the war. The conversation covers the pursuit of the Goeben and Breslau, Souchon's appointment as commander-in-chief of the Ottoman fleet, and his battles against the Russian Navy in the Black Sea. They…
The Ottoman Empire's Last Grand Vizier Ahmed Izzet Pasha
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the overlooked figure of Ahmed Izzet Pasha, the last Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire who negotiated the Armistice of Mudros in 1918. They trace his career from his Albanian origins, through his education in Germany, his command in Yemen, and his role as Chief of Staff on the Caucasus front. The conversation examines how Izzet Pasha's government was formed in the final weeks of the war, the challenges of negotiating with the British aboard HMS…
The Treaty of Sèvres: The Allied Plan to Dismember the Ottoman Empire
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920, the Allied plan to carve up the defeated Ottoman Empire. They discuss how the treaty assigned vast territories to Greece, France, Italy, and Britain, created an independent Armenia and autonomous Kurdistan, and left a rump Turkish state in central Anatolia. The episode covers the reaction of the Ottoman government in Istanbul, the defiance of the Turkish National Movement under Mustafa Kemal, and the treaty's role in…
The Armenian Genocide and the End of the Ottoman Empire
In 1915, in the midst of World War I, the Ottoman Empire began a systematic deportation and massacre of its Armenian population. This episode explores the events of the Armenian Genocide, its origins, the role of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), and how the genocide contributed to the empire's collapse. Lucas and Luna discuss key figures like Talat Pasha, Enver Pasha, and Cemal Pasha, the Tehcir Law, the fate of Armenian soldiers in the Ottoman army, and the international response.…
The Final Oath: How the Ottoman Parliament Defied the Allies in 1920
In January 1920, the last Ottoman Parliament met in occupied Istanbul and adopted the Misak-ı Milli — the National Pact. This declaration of the empire's minimum territorial demands would become the blueprint for the Turkish Republic. But it also sealed the parliament's fate: on March 16, 1920, Allied forces dissolved it by force, arresting deputies and declaring martial law. Lucas and Luna explore the frantic weeks of debate, the key figures like Rauf Orbay and Kara Vasıf, the secret…
The Ottoman Empire's Last Census 1914
In 1914, the Ottoman Empire conducted its final census — a massive, unprecedented attempt to count every soul in a crumbling realm. But the numbers were not just statistics; they were weapons. This episode follows the census officials who trekked through Anatolia, the Balkans, and the Arab provinces, and reveals how the data was twisted by the Committee of Union and Progress to justify wartime policies, including the tragic Tehcir Law. We explore the millet system, the rise of population…
The Ottoman Empire's Last Caliph: Abdülmecid Efendi's Exile
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the final chapter of the Ottoman caliphate through the story of Abdülmecid Efendi, the last caliph before Atatürk abolished the institution in 1924. They discuss how Abdülmecid was elected by the Turkish Grand National Assembly, his brief 17-month tenure, his exile after the caliphate's abolition, and his life in Paris. They delve into his role as a patron of the arts, his paintings, and the fate of his family. The episode also covers the complex politics…
How the Hejaz Railway Became the Ottoman Empire's Lifeline and Target
Long before WWI, the Hejaz Railway was the Ottoman Empire's boldest infrastructure project — a 1,300-kilometer line from Damascus to Medina, built to strengthen the Sultan's claim as Caliph and secure the holy cities. But in the desert, British-backed Arab forces turned it into a target. This episode follows the railway's construction, the German engineers who helped build it, the Bedouin raids that crippled it, and the British 'Hejaz Operations Staff' that turned sabotage into a military…
The Ottoman Sultan Who Burned His Own Capital
In 1912, a catastrophic fire swept through Istanbul's Eminönü district, destroying over 2,000 buildings and leaving 60,000 people homeless. But the disaster wasn't just a tragedy—it was a turning point. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the Great Fire of Constantinople of 1912, a largely forgotten catastrophe that exposed the Ottoman Empire's crumbling infrastructure, deepened ethnic tensions, and accelerated the centralization of power under the Committee of Union and Progress. They…
The Ottoman Empire's Last Census 1914
In 1914, the Ottoman Empire conducted its last comprehensive census. Lucas and Luna explore how this massive bureaucratic project aimed to count a crumbling multi-ethnic empire on the eve of World War I. They discuss the challenges of enumerating nomadic tribes, the role of religious millets, the controversial population figures for Armenians and Arabs, and how the census data was later weaponized during wartime deportations. The episode also touches on the census's legacy for modern Turkey and…
How the 1918 Armistice of Mudros Dismantled an Empire
Episode 162 of How World War I Ended the Ottoman Empire Forever examines the Armistice of Mudros, signed on October 30, 1918, aboard HMS Agamemnon. Hosts Lucas and Luna explore the secret negotiations between Ottoman Naval Minister Rauf Orbay and British Admiral Somerset Gough-Calthorpe, the harsh terms that allowed Allied occupation of the Straits and key provinces, and how the armistice effectively ended Ottoman sovereignty before the Treaty of Sèvres. They discuss the role of the Sublime…
How the Ottoman Sultan Became a British Prisoner in Malta
In 1922, the last Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed VI Vahdettin, fled Istanbul aboard a British warship and was exiled to Malta. This episode explores his dramatic escape, the occupation of Istanbul, the British decision to host the Sultan in Malta, and the end of 600 years of Ottoman rule. We discuss the role of General Harington, the HMS Malaya, the Sultan's stay at the Verdala Palace, and the legal and political fallout of his exile. The episode also touches on the Sultan's death in Sanremo, Italy, in…
The Last Ottoman Debt: How WWI Finances Sank an Empire
Long before the guns of August 1914 fell silent, the Ottoman Empire was already drowning in debt. In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore how the Ottoman Public Debt Administration — a European-controlled agency that collected Ottoman taxes — became the financial leash that strangled the empire during World War I. From the 1854 Crimean War loans that started the spiral, to the 1881 Decree of Muharrem that handed over key revenues like salt, tobacco, and silk to foreign bondholders, to the final…
How the Sykes-Picot Agreement Carved Up the Ottoman Empire
In 1916, as World War I raged, two men—Sir Mark Sykes of Britain and François Georges-Picot of France—drew lines on a map that would redraw the Middle East. Their secret agreement, later revealed by the Bolsheviks, carved Ottoman territories into spheres of influence, creating nations like Syria, Iraq, Jordan, and Lebanon from whole cloth. This episode explores how Sykes-Picot ignored ethnic and sectarian realities, setting the stage for a century of conflict. Lucas and Luna discuss the…
How the Ottoman Empire Lost Its Oil: The Mosul Question 1918-1926
When the Ottoman Empire collapsed after World War I, one of the most contentious issues was control over the oil-rich region of Mosul. This episode explores how the Mosul Question unfolded between 1918 and 1926, pitting the newly-formed Turkish Republic against British imperial interests. We follow the diplomatic maneuvering at the Lausanne Conference, the role of the League of Nations, and the 1925 Brussels Line that ultimately awarded Mosul to Iraq under British mandate. Key figures include…
The Last Sultan: Mehmed VI's Exile and the End of the Ottoman Dynasty
When the Ottoman Empire officially dissolved in 1922, Sultan Mehmed VI Vahdettin fled Istanbul aboard a British warship, never to return. This episode follows his final days as sultan, the Grand National Assembly's decision to abolish the sultanate, and the exile of the Ottoman royal family. We explore the last sultan's controversial reign, his cooperation with the Allies after World War I, the nationalist backlash, and the quiet departure that marked the end of 600 years of dynastic rule. We…
How the Turkish War of Independence Ended Ottoman Rule
Lucas and Luna explore the final chapter of the Ottoman Empire through the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923). After the Armistice of Mudros left the empire vulnerable, Mustafa Kemal Paşa organized a resistance that fought Greek, Armenian, French, and British forces. Key events include the Sivas Congress, the Battle of Sakarya, and the Great Offensive. The episode examines how the Grand National Assembly in Ankara challenged the sultan's government in Istanbul, leading to the abolition of…
How the Palestine Front Became the Ottoman Empire's Last Stand
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the often-overlooked Palestine front of World War I, where the Ottoman Empire made its final military stand. They discuss the leadership of Cemal Paşa, the role of German advisors like Otto Liman von Sanders, the strategic blunder of the first and second Gaza battles, and the decisive British capture of Jerusalem in December 1917. The conversation also covers the impact of the Arab Revolt, the use of aircraft and gas, and the eventual collapse at the…
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