Episodes
Aurangzeb's Jizya Tax and the Cost of Orthodoxy
In this episode, we explore how Emperor Aurangzeb’s reimposition of the jizya tax in 1679 fundamentally altered the Mughal Empire’s social fabric. We look at the political pressure from the ulema, the resistance from Rajput allies like Raja Jai Singh, and the economic strain on non-Muslim subjects. Through the eyes of court chronicler Bhimsen Saxena and the administrative records of the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, we see how a policy meant to reinforce Islamic law instead eroded the empire’s military…
Aurangzeb's Deccan War and the Maratha Resistance
While previous episodes have explored Aurangzeb’s legal codes, poetry, and administrative networks, this episode shifts focus to the military reality that ultimately unraveled his empire. We examine the decade-long campaign in the Deccan, where the Mughal army faced not just rival sultanates like Golconda and Bijapur, but a sophisticated guerrilla strategy led by Chhatrapati Shivaji and later Sambhaji. Lucas traces the logistical nightmare of maintaining supply lines across rugged terrain…
Aurangzeb's Deccan Quagmire: The War That Broke the Empire
While previous episodes have explored Aurangzeb’s legal codes, poetry, and temple policies, this episode examines the military and logistical nightmare of his thirty-year campaign in the Deccan. We follow the Emperor from Agra to the rugged fortresses of Golconda and Bijapur, tracing how the expansion into southern India transformed a manageable empire into an overextended state. Lucas and Luna discuss the strategic failures of maintaining supply lines across thousands of miles, the rise of the…
Aurangzeb's Secret Police and the Cost of Control
While we’ve explored Aurangzeb’s poetry, coinage, and temple policies, this episode turns to the invisible machinery of his reign: the imperial intelligence network. We examine how the Mughal Empire maintained control over a vast, fracturing subcontinent through the Barid (couriers) and Khufia Nawis (secret agents). Lucas walks us through the daily operations of these spies in Agra Fort and the Deccan, detailing how information flowed faster than armies could march. Luna asks about the human…
Aurangzeb's Tax on Religious Scholars
In this episode of Fexingo History, we explore the controversial jizya tax and its complex relationship with religious scholarship in the Mughal Empire. While often remembered for imposing taxes on non-Muslims, Aurangzeb’s policies were deeply intertwined with the status of ulema and scholars across South Asia. We examine how the collection of these levies affected communities in regions like Gujarat, Bengal, and the Deccan, challenging simplistic narratives of persecution versus pragmatism.…
Aurangzeb's Secret Police and the Intelligence Network
While previous episodes explored Aurangzeb’s legal codes, coinage, and military campaigns, this episode turns inward to the machinery of control that held his vast empire together: the secret police and intelligence network. We examine the role of the Barids, the Imperial Spies, and the complex web of informants known as khufia-nawis who reported directly to the throne from every corner of Hindustan. Through the lens of Bhimsen Saxena’s chronicles and the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, we uncover how…
Aurangzeb's Hidden Bureaucracy and the Price of Peace
While Aurangzeb is often remembered for his military campaigns and religious edicts, this episode explores the quiet machinery that held the Mughal Empire together: its paper trail. We dive into the world of the munshi and the waqia-nawis, the scribes and spies who documented every grain tax and troop movement. Through the letters of Muhammad Israfil and Abdul Wahab, we see how the empire’s vast bureaucracy functioned as both an administrative engine and a surveillance state. This conversation…
Aurangzeb's Shadow Army: The Eunuch Generals of the Mughal Court
While we have explored Aurangzeb’s wars, coins, and religious edicts, his inner circle remained a mystery. This episode reveals the rise of the eunuch generals who managed the imperial harem and eventually commanded armies in the Deccan. We trace the careers of Khwaja Amin Khan, Malik Ambar’s legacy, and the political maneuvering of the Sarai Sultan. Through the lens of these trusted outsiders, we examine how Aurangzeb used castrated servants to bypass the noble factions that threatened his…
Aurangzeb's Silk Road: Trade, Spies, and the Mughal Economy
While history remembers Aurangzeb for his wars and religious policies, he was also a meticulous manager of the empire’s vast commercial networks. This episode explores the intricate web of trade routes that connected the Mughal heartland to Central Asia, the Persian Gulf, and beyond. We look at how the emperor used spies, tax farmers, and diplomatic correspondence to protect merchant caravans from bandits and rival powers. Through the lens of the Ruqa'at-i-Alamgiri letters and court records, we…
Aurangzeb's Lost Successors: The War of 1707
The death of Aurangzeb in 1707 did not end the Mughal Empire overnight, but it triggered a civil war that fractured its core. This episode explores the succession crisis between his sons Azam Shah and Bahadur Shah I, focusing on the Battle of Jajau where imperial brothers killed each other for the throne. We examine how this internal bloodletting allowed regional powers like the Marathas and Sikhs to assert autonomy, shifting the empire from centralized conquest to defensive consolidation.…
Aurangzeb's Hidden Letters to European Traders
While we have covered Aurangzeb’s wars, taxes, and religious policies extensively, this episode explores a lesser-known facet of his reign: his diplomatic correspondence with European powers. We examine the Ruqa'at-i-Alamgiri, a collection of Persian letters sent by the Emperor to various European monarchs and trading companies between 1660 and 1700. Lucas and Luna discuss how Aurangzeb viewed the British East India Company not as partners in trade, but as subjects who owed him loyalty and…
Aurangzeb's Bureaucracy and the Price of Peace
While earlier episodes explored Aurangzeb’s wars, temples, and personal piety, this episode turns to the invisible machinery that held his vast empire together: the imperial bureaucracy. We examine how the Mansabdari system functioned under pressure, focusing on the critical role of the waqia-nawis (intelligence officers) and khufia-nawis (spies) who reported directly to the throne from the Deccan front. Lucas and Luna discuss the daily reality of Mughal administration in the 1680s, looking at…
Aurangzeb's Secret Library: Books, Binding, and Islamic Law
While history often remembers Aurangzeb for his wars and tax policies, a quieter revolution was happening in his private quarters. This episode explores the emperor’s profound relationship with books—how he copied, bound, and distributed them across the Mughal Empire. We look at the specific theological texts that occupied his mind, from Hanafi jurisprudence to Sufi poetry, and examine how his personal library became a tool of statecraft. By analyzing the *Ruhaniyat* manuscripts and the…
Aurangzeb's Last War: The Battle of Khudai
In this episode, we explore the brutal final chapter of Aurangzeb’s reign in the Deccan, focusing on the Battle of Khudai in 1704. We examine how the aging emperor, despite his piety and administrative rigor, became trapped in a quagmire against the Maratha Confederacy under Ramachandra Pant Amatya and Dhanaji Jadhav. We discuss the strategic failures of the Mughal siege engines, the devastating monsoon campaigns, and the economic drain that nearly bankrupted the empire. Through the lens of the…
Aurangzeb's Tomb: The Humble End of a Grand Empire
This episode explores the profound irony of Aurangzeb’s final resting place at Khuldabad, contrasting his austere grave with the marble splendor of his father Shah Jahan’s Taj Mahal. We examine how the Emperor’s own instructions for his burial reflected his complex relationship with power, piety, and legacy. Lucas and Luna discuss the architectural simplicity of the raw stone sarcophagus, the lack of ornamentation, and the political messages sent by this deliberate minimalism. The conversation…
Aurangzeb's Coinage: The Imperial Mint
In Episode 220 of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna explore the Mughal mint under Aurangzeb, from the calligraphic gold mohur to the copper dam. They discuss the emperor's decision to strike coins in his own name, the role of the mint in projecting imperial authority, and the practical challenges of running a vast currency system across the Deccan. With references to the Maasir-i-Alamgiri and the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, they examine how coinage reflected both the reach and the limits of Mughal power.…
Aurangzeb's Paper Trail: The Empire's Bureaucrats
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the unseen machinery of Aurangzeb's empire: the clerks, accountants, and scribes who kept the Mughal state running. From the imperial chancery's Persian scrolls to the humble village records that tracked monsoon rains and harvests, we trace how paper — not just the sword — held the Deccan together. Along the way, we meet figures like the chief qazi Abdul Wahab and the munshi Muhammad Israfil, and we look at the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri's prescriptions for…
Aurangzeb's Court Painters: The Artist Who Painted the Emperor
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the world of Mughal court painting under Aurangzeb. While earlier emperors like Akbar and Jahangir patronized lavish illustrated manuscripts, Aurangzeb's reign saw a shift toward more restrained, realistic portraiture. The focus is on the court painter Bichitr, who worked for Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb. They discuss Bichitr's famous portrait of Aurangzeb in old age, the evolution of Mughal painting from Akbar's Hamzanama to the naturalism of the…
Aurangzeb's Slave Generals: The Empire's Trusted Outsiders
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna explore the remarkable careers of two slave generals who rose to the highest ranks of Aurangzeb's army: Khwaja Abid Khan, the Georgian slave who became a trusted commander, and Diler Khan, a Hindu convert who led some of the most brutal campaigns of the Deccan wars. They discuss how these men navigated the complex politics of the Mughal court, the status of slaves in Islamic law, and the paradox of an emperor who both relied on and distrusted…
Aurangzeb's Persian Letters: The Emperor's Farangi Diplomacy
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore a lesser-known side of Aurangzeb's reign: his diplomatic correspondence with the Safavid court and the English East India Company. Drawing on the letters collected in the Maasir-i-Alamgiri and the Ruqa'at-i-Alamgiri, they uncover how the emperor balanced Persianate etiquette with hard-nosed trade negotiations, and how his missives to the English factors at Surat and Madras reveal a ruler who was both pious and pragmatic. The conversation ranges from the…
Aurangzeb's Opaque Poetry: The Emperor's Hidden Verses
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore a side of Aurangzeb rarely discussed: his poetry. While known as a stern ruler, Aurangzeb wrote under the pen name 'Alamgir' and left behind a small collection of mystical verses that reveal a contemplative, even melancholic soul. They discuss the cultural context of Persian poetry in the Mughal court, the influence of Rumi and Hafez, and how Aurangzeb's verses differ from those of his brother Dara Shikoh. The episode draws on the Maasir-i-Alamgiri and…
Aurangzeb's Jain Edicts Revisited: The 1665 Shatrunjaya Rescript
In 1665, Aurangzeb issued a remarkable order protecting Jain pilgrims and their temples at Shatrunjaya, a sacred hill in Gujarat. This episode unpacks that decree, its circumstances, and its legacy. We explore how the emperor, often remembered for temple destruction and religious intolerance, also extended imperial protection to Jain communities. What did this rescript actually say? Why did Aurangzeb grant it? And what does it tell us about the Mughal state's relationship with its non-Muslim…
Aurangzeb's Temples: Destruction, Patronage, and Politics
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the complex and often misunderstood story of Aurangzeb's relationship with Hindu temples. They trace the specific cases of destruction — including the Kashi Vishwanath temple in Benares and the Keshavdeo temple in Mathura — and balance them against lesser-known instances of imperial patronage, such as his grants to temples in Vrindavan and his protection of certain Jain shrines. Drawing on the work of historians like Audrey Truschke and Richard Eaton…
Aurangzeb's Elephant Corps: War Beasts of the Mughal Empire
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna explore the role of war elephants in Aurangzeb's campaigns across the Deccan. From the massive musth-driven charges at Golconda to the daily logistics of feeding and arming thousands of pachyderms, they uncover how these living siege engines shaped Mughal warfare. Learn about the specialized elephant corps, the mahouts who rode them, and the terrifying effectiveness of spiked chains and iron-tipped tusks. Drawing on the Maasir-i-Alamgiri and…
Aurangzeb's Quran: The Emperor Who Copied Scripture
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore a lesser-known side of Aurangzeb: his personal devotion to transcribing the Quran. While previous episodes covered his wars, taxes, and building projects, here we focus on his calligraphic practice and the manuscripts he copied by hand. We look at his training under calligraphers, his habit of making two copies a year, and how these texts were distributed as gifts to holy cities and officials. We also discuss what his calligraphy reveals about his piety…
Aurangzeb's Mosque at Benares: The Gyanvapi Dispute
In 1669, Aurangzeb ordered the demolition of the Vishwanath temple in Benares and built the Gyanvapi Mosque in its place. This episode unpacks that controversial act: the political context of the Jat and Maratha uprisings, the emperor's own writings justifying the demolition as a blow against 'falsehood', and the afterlife of the site—from the 18th-century Maratha restoration attempts to the 20th-century legal battles that still resonate today. We look at the architecture of the mosque, its…
Aurangzeb's Maratha War: The Emperor Who Lost the Deccan
In this episode, Lucas and Luna dive into Aurangzeb's long, grinding war against the Marathas — a conflict that stretched for nearly three decades and drained the Mughal Empire's treasury, manpower, and morale. They trace the rise of Shivaji, the guerrilla tactics that frustrated Mughal armies, the brutal executions of Sambhaji and the capture of Rajaram's family, and the emergence of Tarabai as a formidable leader. They examine how Aurangzeb's obsession with the Deccan — fueled by his desire…
Aurangzeb's Jain Edicts: Mercy Amid Conquest
In 1679, Aurangzeb issued an imperial decree that shocked his court: a farman granting protection to Jain pilgrims at Shatrunjaya, the holiest hill of the Svetambara faith. This episode explores the surprising relationship between the Mughal emperor and the Jain community, from the legendary monk Lal Vijayji, who won the emperor's respect through a series of philosophical debates, to the practical politics of religious tolerance in an empire stretched thin by war. We trace how Aurangzeb's…
Aurangzeb's Gardens: The Emperor Who Planted Paradise
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore Aurangzeb's gardens — the orchards, pleasure grounds, and shaded retreats he cultivated across the Mughal Empire. From the terraced gardens of Kashmir to the vineyards of the Deccan, we uncover how the emperor who spent decades at war also planted thousands of fruit trees, built aqueducts to water them, and sought solace in green spaces. We visit the Bagh-i-Jahanara in Delhi, the gardens of Aurangabad, and the famous Shalimar Bagh in Kashmir, drawing on…
Aurangzeb's War Horses: The Cavalry That Carried an Empire
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna explore the overlooked workhorses of Mughal warfare: the war horses that carried Aurangzeb's armies through the Deccan for decades. From the prized horses of Turan and Iran to the hardy Deccan ponies, Lucas details how the Mughal cavalry was organized, supplied, and maneuvered, drawing on the Maasir-i-Alamgiri and the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri. He explains the crucial role of the remount system, the logistics of fodder and water, and the devastating…
Aurangzeb's Jizya Tax: Faith, Finance, and Rebellion
In this episode, Lucas and Luna examine Aurangzeb's reimposition of the jizya tax on non-Muslims in 1679—a decision that reshaped the Mughal Empire. They trace the tax's history from its Quranic origins through earlier Mughal practice, and explore Aurangzeb's motivations: piety, fiscal need, and political calculation. The conversation covers protests from Hindus and Jains, including a dramatic crowd at the Red Fort, and the tax's role in fueling Rajput and Maratha resistance. Drawing on sources…
Aurangzeb's Water Works: Canals, Wells, and an Empire's Thirst
Aurangzeb is remembered for war and piety, but what about water? In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the emperor's hydraulic projects across the Mughal Empire — from the massive canal he commissioned in the Punjab to the stepwells and baolis of the Deccan. Drawing on Mughal chronicles like the Maasir-i-Alamgiri and the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, they uncover how water infrastructure shaped settlement, agriculture, and even military strategy. Discover the engineers behind these works, the role of…
Aurangzeb's Spies: The Empire's Hidden Eyes
In a realm stretching from Kabul to the Deccan, Aurangzeb relied on an intricate network of spies and informants to keep his grip on power. This episode follows the emperor's intelligence machine: the royal news-writers (waqia-nawis) who documented every court session, the secret reporters (khufia-nawis) who shadowed nobles, and the postal runners who carried their dispatches across thousands of miles. We meet Munshi Muhammad Israfil, a news-writer in the Deccan whose reports survive in Persian…
Aurangzeb's Arrest of His Daughter: A Family Fracture
In 1681, the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb arrested his own daughter, Princess Zeb-un-Nissa, and confined her for the last two decades of her life. Why would a ruler imprison his child? This episode unpacks the family and political fracture that led to the arrest — the flight of her full brother Prince Akbar to the Marathas, the rebellion that shook the Deccan, and the suspicion that fell on the most learned woman in the empire. We look at what the Maasir-i-Alamgiri and the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri tell us…
Aurangzeb's Army: The Mughal Military Machine
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore the vast military apparatus of Aurangzeb's Mughal Empire — not just the battles, but the logistics, technology, and diversity of forces that sustained a 50-year reign. They discuss the mansabdari system, which tied rank to military obligation and created a complex hierarchy of commanders; the elite ahadis, imperial guards who answered directly to the emperor; the crucial role of the artillery, from massive cannons like the Zarb Zaman to the swift…
Aurangzeb's Deccan Letter: The Emperor Who Spoke Marathi
In Episode 200 of Fexingo History, we look at a side of Aurangzeb that rarely makes it into the grand narratives of war and policy: the emperor's personal letters — many written in Marathi. These weren't courtly documents composed by scribes; they were dictated, often from military camps, to farmers, local officials, and even Maratha warriors. Through them we hear a ruler trying to govern a vast Deccan by correspondence, offering practical instructions on irrigation, grain prices, and land…
Aurangzeb's Ramadan: The Sultan of Fasting at War
In the year 1703, the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, aged eighty-five and deep in the Deccan wars, observed Ramadan with a ferocity that stunned his court. This episode of Fexingo History follows the emperor through the holy month: his pre-dawn meals, his daylight fasts, his night prayers, and the strange spectacle of a king at war who refused to break his fast even as cannonballs flew. We explore the practicalities of imperial fasting—how the royal kitchen adjusted, how soldiers coped, and how…
Aurangzeb's Deccan Exile: The Emperor Who Died Far From Home
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna explore the final years of Aurangzeb's life, when the aging emperor left Delhi and never returned. They trace his slow, grinding wars in the Deccan, the daily routines of a ruler who slept on the ground and sewed caps, and the letters he wrote to his sons — full of regret and political calculation. The conversation moves from the siege of Golconda to the fall of Bijapur, then to the guerilla campaigns of the Marathas and the famine that emptied…
Aurangzeb's Deccan War: The Siege of Golconda
In 1687, Aurangzeb's armies surrounded Golconda, the last great Deccan sultanate and home of the fabled Koh-i-Noor diamond. This episode digs into the eight-month siege that broke the Qutb Shahi dynasty — the tunnels, the bribes, the famine, and the moment a traitor opened the gates. We trace the military engineering of Mughal siegecraft, the role of the Habshi general Sidi Masud, and the aftermath that saw Golconda's wealth flow to Delhi. Along the way, we meet the poet-king Abul Hasan Qutb…
Aurangzeb's Coinage: The Emperor Who Minted His Faith
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore a less-trodden facet of Aurangzeb's reign: his coinage. From the kalima-bearing gold mohurs that replaced the legacy of Shah Jahan to the controversial jizya tokens, coins were more than money—they were state propaganda. The episode traces the shift from the emperor's early 'Aurangzeb Alamgir' inscriptions to the overtly Islamic legends of his later years, touching on the 1668 ban on the Persian 'zodiac' motifs, the use of 'Sahib-i-Qiran' titles, and the…
Aurangzeb's Love Letters: The Emperor's Secret Heart
In 1656, a 38-year-old prince named Aurangzeb wrote a letter to his dying father that would reveal a side of him history often forgets. This episode uncovers the intimate correspondence between Aurangzeb and his father, Shah Jahan, and his mother, Mumtaz Mahal — letters that survive in the imperial archives. We explore how a man known for rigid piety and ruthless ambition could also express profound tenderness, asking his father for forgiveness and recalling his mother's gentle embrace. We read…
Aurangzeb's Jain Edicts: Faith, Famine, and Imperial Mercy
In 1681, as Aurangzeb marched south to begin the long Deccan campaigns, a famine gripped Gujarat, and the emperor issued a remarkable set of farmans granting protection to Jain pilgrims, temples, and merchants. This episode explores those edicts: how they emerged from a moment of crisis, what they reveal about Mughal religious policy under a ruler often caricatured as fanatical, and the forgotten role of Jain merchants and monks in the imperial economy. We read from the edicts themselves—often…
Aurangzeb's Slave Generals: From Chains to Command
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna explore a little-known facet of Aurangzeb's reign: the rise of enslaved generals and administrators. From the Deccan to the Punjab, men like Khwaja Abul Hasan, Inayatullah Khan, and the Ethiopian-born Sidi Yaqut rose from bondage to command armies and govern provinces. Drawing on the Maasir-i-Alamgiri and the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, they discuss the institution of slavery in the Mughal Empire, the roles of eunuchs and concubines in the imperial…
Aurangzeb's Poisonous Legacy: The Farrukhsiyar Plot
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna delve into the final, strangest twist of Aurangzeb's long shadow: the poisoning of his grandson, Prince Farrukhsiyar, by his own aunt. Set against the crumbling Mughal court in the early 1700s, they explore the lethal intrigue of the zenana, the ambitions of Princess Zinat-un-Nisa, and the bloody succession wars that followed Aurangzeb's death. From the chilly corridors of the Red Fort to the fevered whispers of the harem, Lucas pieces together…
Aurangzeb's Elephant Armies: War Beasts of the Mughal Empire
In this episode of Fexingo History, Lucas and Luna explore the role of war elephants in Aurangzeb's military campaigns. From the massive armored beasts that terrified enemies in the Deccan to the logistical nightmare of feeding and moving them, elephants were both a symbol of Mughal power and a practical weapon of war. Lucas tells the story of how Aurangzeb deployed these living tanks at key battles like the siege of Golconda, and how their presence shaped battle tactics. He also shares a…
Aurangzeb and the Deccan Heartland: Beyond the Battlefields
In this episode, Lucas and Luna step away from Aurangzeb's military campaigns and tax policies to explore the Deccan's cultural and intellectual life under his long reign. They discuss the rise of Marathi as a literary language, the flourishing of Indo-Persian poetry in the Deccan courts, and the architectural legacy of Aurangzeb's mosques and caravanserais. The episode also looks at the emperor's own writings—his letters and his Quranic transcriptions—as windows into his personal piety and…
Aurangzeb's Ottoman Letters: The Mughal Emperor in Istanbul's Court
In this episode, Lucas and Luna explore a little-known aspect of Aurangzeb's reign: his correspondence with the Ottoman sultans. From embassies carried across the Indian Ocean to letters asserting his role as a defender of the faith, we trace how the Mughal emperor sought recognition from the Ottoman caliphs. Why did Aurangzeb write to Mehmed IV? What did the Ottomans make of his claims? And what does this exchange reveal about the broader Muslim world of the 17th century? Drawing on accounts…
Aurangzeb's Personal Piety: The Emperor Who Copied the Quran
Aurangzeb is often remembered as a zealot who destroyed temples and banned music, but his personal piety was far more complex: he was a devout Muslim who memorized the Quran as a child, copied it twice by hand, lived frugally, and spent his nights in prayer. This episode delves into the emperor's daily routine, his meticulous calligraphy, his compilation of Hanafi law in the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, and the deep religious devotion that shaped his reign. We explore whether his piety was genuine or a…
Aurangzeb's Siege of Bijapur: The Fall of the Adil Shahi Sultanate
In this episode, Lucas and Luna dig into one of Aurangzeb's most costly and dramatic campaigns: the siege of Bijapur, capital of the Adil Shahi sultanate. They explore the city's formidable defenses, the failed negotiations, the military engineering, and the decisive role of betrayal. Discover how the Mughal emperor finally captured the stronghold in 1686, what happened to the young Sultan Sikandar Adil Shah, and how this victory—like so many others—sowed the seeds of imperial overreach. Learn…
Aurangzeb's Silent Court: The Banning of Music
In 1668, Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb issued a decree that silenced the imperial court's musicians—naqqaras were muted, instruments destroyed, and performers like Gopala Naik and Ramdas forced to seek patronage elsewhere. This episode explores the motivations behind the ban, from Aurangzeb's personal piety to the influence of Hanafi fiqh, which deemed music haram. We examine a letter to his son Bahadur Shah I, where Aurangzeb condemns music as a distraction from God, and consider the consequences…
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